CC BY-NC-ND
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Alexander Militarev (Russian State University for the Humanities)
Proto-Afrasian Lexicon Confirming West Asian Homeland: Pastoralism
The article presents one more step towards the equation of the culture of speakers of Proto-Afrasian, reconstructed on the basis of paleolinguistic data, with the early Neolithic Post-Natufian culture of the Levant. According to the glottochronological method of S. A. Starostin, Proto-Afrasian is dated back to approximately 10 000 K — the same period as Post-Natufian (supposed to be the cradle of agriculture and livestock breeding on the planet), as far as radiocarbon dating tells us. The article offers evidence for the presence of a layer of pastoral lexicon in Proto-Afrasian, in the form of 26 reconstructed names for large and small cattle and various other pastoral terms. The lexical data are preceded with a brief summary of the current state of affairs in Afrasian historical linguistics, as well as a description of the author's methodology of linguistic analysis and his approach to combining linguistic and archaeological data in order to solve the "homeland" issue for proto-languages.
Introduction
The objective of the present paper is to present further evidence, this time referring to pastoralism presumably practised by the Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic, Semito-Hamitic) speaking community, for the identification of this community with the early Levantine villagers associated with the early Neolithic Post-Natufian culture. These villagers left some of the earliest known archaeological evidence for the cultivation of domesticated crops (cereals and pulse) and the raising of domestic livestock (cf., for example, [Bar-Yosef]; [Hass.]; [Pelt.]). It is for archaeologists to evaluate the correspondences between the archaeological evidence from the Levant, as well as adjacent regions, and the reconstructed terminology referring to incipient agro-pastoralism in the Proto-Afrasian language, dated by the new version of the linguistic method of glottochronology to approximately the same period (12 000 - 10 500 BP) and presumably the same area.
This is part of a broader project aimed at drawing a most comprehensive picture featuring practically all aspects of life of Early Neolithic people in the Near East which can be drawn from the reconstructed Proto-Afrasian lexicon, namely, terms referring to people and society; economic life and technology; intellectual culture; and natural and physical environments.
While the archaeology of the Levant is one of the most advanced fields in the domain of world prehistory, Afrasian comparative linguistics has long been lagging behind such fields as Altaic or North Caucasian, to say nothing of Indo-European comparative studies. As to comparative Afrasian lexicology and etymology, their history and present state of knowledge can be described in short as follows. Sound correspondences and etymologies proposed in the pioneer work by M. Cohen ([Coh.]) postulating the Semito-Hamitic family are, as a whole, outdated. A lot of Common Afrasian lexemes were collected by J. Greenberg in The Languages of Africa ([Gr.]) and other works, but his method of "mass comparison", opposed to the established comparative-historical method and aiming exclusively at genealogical classification, does not care for establishing sound correspondences or reconstructing protoforms. A number of reliable phonetic and lexical Afrasian correspondences were proposed in [I-S] and other studies by V. Illich-Svitych, who included Semito-Hamitic resp. Afrasian into his Nostratic macrofamily (the present author considers Afrasian and Nostratic two "sister" entities on the same taxonomic level) and, especially, by A. Dolgopolsky ([Dolg. Cush.]), who adduced Afrasian parallels to his Cushito-Omotic protoforms and paved the way to the elaboration of Proto-Afrasian phonological system.
The first study, however, to reconstruct the latter and establish regular sound corrspondences between the primary branches and languages of Afrasian (its main bulk is still valid even today), was carried out by a team of scholars headed by I. Diakonoff, of which the present author was a member; it also adduced a few hundred Proto-Afrasian lexemes ([HCVA]). Although an important step for comparative Afrasian back in its day, now that over 20 years have passed, its many drawbacks are obvious to everyone including its authors; some are due to many publication sources that were inaccessible in Russia back then, others — to a lack of experience in dealing with such vast and heterogeneous material, still others — to rather loose semantic criteria. Two comparative Afrasian dictionaries both published in 1995 ([HSED] and [Ehr. PA]) enriched the field with more lexical data, yet again, each of the
Journal of Language Relationship • Вопросы языкового родства • 1 (2009) • pp. 95 - 106
two had its own flaws. [HSED], while replete with new and stimulating etymologies, was compiled rather hastily and carelessly; C. Ehret's method, on the other hand, involved postulating improbably sophisticated proto-phonemes in combination with far-fetched semantic comparisons, such as his attempts to relate words with meanings like 'armpit' and 'to thatch' ("the armpit is a covered area of the body"), or 'forest' and 'thirst' (with the reconstructed meaning 'waterless place, desolation'), &c.
Important contributions to the study of Afrasian lexicon have also been made by two hard-working comparative linguists, V. Blazek (in many papers) and G. Takacs ([EDE I, II and III] and various other papers). Invaluable and enormous Afrasian lexical data are presented by one of the world's leading mac-rocomparativists, A. Dolgopolsky, in his massive Nostratic Dictionary (still unpublished on paper but now available online at http://www.dspace.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/196512 courtesy of the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research at Cambridge); many Afrasian reconstructions offered there are, however, in our opinion, debatable, due to Dolgopolsky's adherence to the idea of Afrasian being an integral part of Nostratic, which accounts for numerous cases of "forced" cognations. Anyway, the most comprehensive collection of Afrasian etymological data (containing some 3 500 entries in the main database and some 15 000 in subdatabases containing lexica of all the branches and lesser groups within Afrasian), some of it representing properly verified etymologies and some serving as "raw material" open to further research, can be found today in the general Afrasian database ([AADB]), accessible electronically at http://starling.rinet.ru. The database has been compiled by the present author and O. Stol-bova within the framework of the "Evolution of Human Languages" project of the Santa Fe Institute.
As to how this relates to all the work in progress elsewhere, it is worth mentioning that practically all the researchers who tried to deal with the problem of original habitat, or "homeland", of the speakers of Proto-Afrasian, put forth arguments in favor of an African homeland. These arguments, relying on general considerations like "economy of movement", as well as scarce, chaotic and carelessly compiled lexical examples, look very weak (see, for example, [Ehr. EEA] and studies by R. Blench, such as [ALAP] and others); an exception can be made for I. Diakonoff's study ([Diak. ESA]) which is methodologically impeccable, but was outdated already at the moment of publication, as far as lexical materials that underlie its conclusions are concerned. By that time, a lot of new data contradicting these conclusions had already been accumulated — partly due to ongoing work on comparative Afrasian lexicon, initiated and headed by Diakonoff himself. Later, he recognized the validity of our arguments in favor of a West Asian homeland ([Diak. Sum.]).
Since the present paper is designed for a new periodical edition, devoted to issues of historical and comparative linguistics, the author thinks it appropriate to precede the data with some theoretical and methodological considerations. Namely, three different methods are used for different aspects of the author's research on Afrasian lexicon, including the one fragment that is represented by the present paper, and on the investigation of the homeland of Proto-Afrasian speakers:
(1) The main method is, as in any other standard comparative study dealing with lexical reconstruction of a protolanguage, the classic comparative-historical method elaborated for Indo-European languages by the Neogrammarian School in the late 19th century. Within this method, several principles are strictly observed, some of them slightly innovative, some being universally accepted as something that goes without saying — yet far from always followed either in etymological dictionaries for individual Afrasian languages or in studies on Common Afrasian. These principles are as follows:
(1.1.) Selection of lexical terms to be labelled Proto-Afrasian. According to the author's genetic classification of Afrasian (first branching dated to the mid-10th mill.), this macrofamily consists of the following presumed branches and universally recognized families:
1. North Afrasian (NAA) (first branching dated to the mid 9th mill. K):
1.1. Semitic.
1.2. African North Afrasian (ANAA):
1.2.1. Egyptian.
1.2.2. Chado-Berber:
1.2.2.1. Berber-Canarian.
1.2.2.2. Chadic.
2. South Afrasian (SAA):
2.1. Cushitic.
2.2. Omotic.
In accordance with this classification, PAA terms are those attested at least in one family belonging to the NAA branch and one family belonging to the SAA branch; PNAA terms are those attested in Semitic and at least one family belonging to the ANAA subbranch, provided the compared terms are not suspected to have been borrowed (see below for criteria for borrowings). Terms attested only in ANAA or only in SAA (both branching in late 8th mill.) are not included, as they are irrelevant for the present study.
(1.2.) Ruling out borrowings.
To avoid reconstruction of "false" PAA or PNAA forms, the terms selected for inclusion should not be suspected of having been borrowed, with all controversial and debatable cases marked as such. First of all, this principle makes the inclusion of Semitic cognates highly desirable; a lack of Semitic parallels will make any form claimed to represent PAA less reliable, since cognate forms that are only attested in African Afrasian languages, even in both ANAA and SAA, may have been borrowed from a non-Afrasian African substratum. Apart from that, there can be several other situations with their specific problems requiring individual treatment. Most difficult ones involve identifying Arabisms in most spoken African Afrasian languages; Ethiopian and SAA interborrowings; Cushitic-Omotic, Ber-ber-Chadic, and Egyptian-Semitic interborrowings. In order to distinguish between inherited and borrowed lexemes, the following criteria are proposed (cf. [SED I and II: Introduction, 1.11]):
(1.2.1.) A term may be reasonably claimed a loanword or suspected of having been borrowed only if areal contacts between the languages in question are attested historically and linguistically (e.g. between Arabic and Berber) or, in absence of historical evidence, only linguistically (e.g. between Central Cushitic and Common Ethiopian) or are at least likely to have taken place for geographic proximity (as between Egyptian and Chadic).
(1.2.1a.) Conversely, if in languages whose ethno-linguistic contacts are unknown, there occur instances of matches unlikely to be either cognates or look-alikes, this can be only accounted for by borrowing to serve as a basis for presuming and further investigating such contacts.
(1.2.2.) Instances of borrowing are often, though far from always, characterized by irregular correspondences between consonantal phonemes of the recipient and source languages.
(1.2.3.) An identical morphological pattern in two languages that is typical of one of them, but uncommon of the other, suggests borrowing.
(1.2.3a.) Conversely, difference in morphological patterns between the two terms speaks against borrowing, save for a clear secondary change in a recipient language (e. g. pluralization).
(1.2.4.) A potential indication of borrowing is attestation of the term in question in the presumed source and recipient languages only (i.e., the word is missing in other languages of the genetic unit to which the recipient language belongs).
(1.2.4a.) On the contrary, if a term is attested in other branches of the family, it is expected to have been inherited by all the daughter languages from the family proto-language. Qualifying this term as a loan-word in the presumed recipient language implies a theoretically possible but somewhat less feasible "double" process — loss and later reappearance as a borrowing.
(1.2.4b.) Attestation in other languages within the compact genetic unit to which the presumably recipient language belongs speaks against borrowing under the following conditions:
— the languages of this compact genetic unit are presumed to have diverged prior to the pe-riod(s) of contacts between the suspected recipient language and the source language;
— the languages in question have never undergone influence from the would-be source language;
— the languages in question did not undergo influence from the suspected recipient language during and/or after the period(s) of the latter's contact with the source language.
(1.2.5.) If the term in question belongs to certain semantic groups that are more open to borrowings, this may be an argument in favour of such a borrowing (one must, however, warn against an uncritical application of this criterion, which, in previous works, has sometimes led to an unwarranted assumption of borrowing of a great part of the cultural lexicon in such languages as Arabic).
(1.2.6.) Unmotivated difference in vocalism between the two terms is an argument against borrowing. Thus, Tigre nib 'tooth' can hardly be a borrowing from Arabic, where the attested form is näh-. Not only does the Arabic vocalism leave Tigre -i- unexplained, but the latter form perfectly corresponds to Hebrew and Aramaic forms that also have -i-.
(1.2.7.) Semantic difference: if a secondary semantic development cannot be proved in a recipient language, difference in meaning between the two terms is a strong argument against borrowing.
(1.3.) Reconstruction of the meaning of the protoform.
Provided that regularity of phonetic correspondences is observed for a reconstructed protoform, identifying its most feasible meaning (we omit the easier cases when the meanings of all cognates in the daughter languages, on which the reconstructed protoform relies, are uniform) is of crucial importance for convincing extralinguistic interpretations. Although it goes without saying that a certain meaning is ascribed to each protoform based on close comparison of the complete scope of meanings in individual languages, such an operation can hardly be called proper semantic reconstruction, since, unlike the relatively strict, if not infallible, procedure of phonetic reconstruction, it relies not on a solid method, still conspicuously absent in historical semantics, but rather on the etymologist's intuition and common sense. Anyway, while a dubious choice of a meaning for a protoform may be acceptable in a regular comparative study, it is certainly unpardonable in a study that claims to draw extralinguistic information from linguistic comparison. Thus, an ungrounded, forced assignment of a "cultural" notion to a protoform makes a bias towards picturing a more advanced prehistoric society than it may have been in reality. Recognizing that more "cultural" notions usually go back to more "primitive" notions (at least on a pre-proto-language level), we accept the following guideline in our semantic reconstruction:
— faced with the choice between a "primitive" and a "cultural" meaning, e.g. between that of a wild or domesticated animal or plant species, for a given protoform, the "cultural" meaning, i.e. that of a domesticated species, is proposed only if this meaning is present in the cognate forms of all or nearly all daughter languages. This principle is based on the assumption that independent shift from a "primitive" meaning (wild species) to a "cultural" meaning (domesticated species) in each Afrasian branch and individual language, while theoretically possible, is a far less probable process than the same shift as early as in Proto-Afrasian, from which the "cultural" term was duly inherited by all the daughter languages. The ambivalent cases, i. e. those when a term in question conveys a more "cultural" notion (refers to a domesticated species) in some of the daughter languages, and a more "primitive" notion (refers to wild species) in the others, cannot be used as arguments for ascribing a "cultural" meaning to the protoform.
(2) Another method used for dating the Proto-Afrasian language on the eve of its branching into daughter languages is glottochronology, proposed by the American linguist Morris Swadesh in the 1950s ([Sw. 1952] and [Sw. 1955]) and radically improved, updated and tested on many languages belonging to various language families by the recently deceased Russian linguist Sergei Starostin ([Star.]) and his successors.
According to Swadesh's method, the most essential, representative, commonly used and, hence, rarely borrowed lexemes are selected for each of the diagnostic 100 wordlist items, which convey some of the most fundamental notions presumed to be present in any human language (personal pronouns, numerals 1 and 2, certain body parts, natural objects, main color terms, several most current verbs and adjectives, &c.). These lexemes are to be compared by means of the lexicostatistical procedure to determine a percentage of etymologically identical units common to any pair of related languages. The principle implies a preliminary stage of compiling a diagnostic wordlist that requests a carefully measured selection of terms. In the Afrasian case, this involves (a) thorough philological analysis of written monuments both in extinct Semitic languages, such as Akkadian, Ugaritic, Biblical Hebrew, Syriac, Classical Arabic, Sabaic and Ge'ez, and in Egyptian, and (b) equally detailed analysis of lexical sources on modern living Afrasian sources, including, where possible, work with active language speakers. For the most part, this preliminary stage has already been completed.
At the same time, unlike Swadesh, who paid little attention to precision and reliability of individual etymologies, and avoided any detailed treatment of the complicated problem of borrowing, Starostin in his method requires meticulous etymological analysis, not merely aimed at accurate and well-grounded establishment of cognate terms, but also one that is supposed to disembarrass the list of potential cognates from loanwords — which violate the "natural" algorithm of substitutions in the core lexicon. Tracing loanwords and cogently distinguishing them from inherited lexemes implies high standards of etymological procedure, as well as recurring to sociolinguistic and ethnocultural data. Sometimes, this operation also leads to identifying certain "obscure" lexical items, which we cannot normally trace back to the proto-language or to a reliable source of borrowing due to a lack of data, as potential borrowings from unknown sources.
(3) The third method is that of cross-checking linguistic and archaeological data. As applied to Afrasian linguistics, it has been elaborated by the author in his previous publications, and is based on the following main criteria of identifying "homelands", or original habitats, of reconstructed proto-language communities characterized by a specific archaeological culture (or several cultures):
— one sine qua non condition of plausible identification is that dates estimated by both linguistic and archaeological methods should basically coincide;
— the other sine qua non condition is that the general outlines of the material culture (as well as elements of intellectual culture and social organization) and natural environment of the presumed homeland, one reconstructed on the basis of the evidence of the proto-language lexicon, the other through archaeological data, should be compatible;
— one strong argument for a particular homeland consists in revealing traces of linguistic contacts between the proto-language in question and its early daughter dialects, on one hand, and other recon-structable proto-languages or ancient languages, likely spoken in the area of the presumed homeland and/or along the migration routes of daughter dialects during the corresponding periods, on the other;
— another strong argument is being able to show that the proposed routes of the daughter dialects' movement towards their historically attested habitats correspond to the directions of cultural expansion or artefact spreads that have been established archaeologically, and/or to the directions of population migrations that have been established genetically.
This study has been carried out within the general framework of projects in comparative Semitic and Afrasian linguistics, supported by the Russian Foundation for Sciences (Project 03-06-80435a), the Russian Foundation for the Humanities (Project 06-04-00397a), The Santa Fe Institute (The "Evolution of Human Languages" Project), and the Ariel Group (The "Tower of Babel" Project). My gratitude goes to these institutions, as well as to my colleagues and collaborators in different projects — Prof. O. Stolbova and Drs. L. Kogan and G. Starostin for consultations and discussions.
The Data
The following 26 entries is an incomplete selection of data that demonstrate, in our opinion, the most reliable or promising Proto-Afrasian terms related to cattle-breeding. A lot of common Afrasian terms referring both to domesticated and wild species in daughter languages, or attested in African Afrasian branches only, are not included on purpose in accordance with the principles and considerations presented above. Undoubtedly, more terms can be adduced and the quoted ones can be complimented and strengthened by more data. I will be grateful to my colleagues for any additions, corrections and criticisms.
1. Livestock
1.1. Small cattle
1.1.1. *mar- 'lamb; ram'
Sem. *?immar- 'lamb': Akk. ('sheep; sheep and goats; ram'); Ugr.; Phoen., Hbr., Aram.; Arab.
Chad. W. *mar-: Tangale mara '(castrated) goat', Diri marl 'goat', Bokkos maray, Tala maar, Buli maro, Polchi mar 'goat'.
Cus.h... E.: Saho, Afar maru 'ram'.
Omot. N.: Wolayta mara 'lamb', Male marayi 'ram', marmaro 'lamb', Koyra mara 'ram', Bworo merera 'sheep' (Blench OLT 72).
[] Cf. [HSED: ^ 1729]; [SED II: ^ 5]; [AADB].
1.1.2. *kar(w/y)- 'ram, goat; lamb, kid'
Sem. *ka/ir(r)- 'ram, goat': Akk. kirru (or girru) 'a breed of sheep (?)'; Ugr. kr 'ram'; Hbr. kar '(young) ram', Aram. kr 'sheep'.
(?) Egyp. (NK) kr-ty 'horns' (dual).
Berb. *kVrr 'ram, goat', *kVrw 'lamb, kid'.
Chad. W. *kwar-/*karw- ~ *kir-: Kofyar koor 'castrated goat', Angas kir 'fattening ram', Dera kwara 'goat', Zaar karo 'sheep', Wangday kero 'ram', &c.; E.: Tobanga (N. Gabri) karay 'goat'.
Cus.h... E.: Arbore kaariy 'heifer goat', korat 'male goat', Dobase koren-te 'female goat' , Yaaku kurum- 'goat, young; lamb'.
[] Cf. [HSED: ^ 1432]; [SED II: ^ 118]; [AADB].
1.1.3. *f«y/wp- - *p/af- 'kid; goat; ram'
Sem..: Arab. fafaS-; ESA (Min.)fyS, Soq. Seyff 'kid'.
Egyp.. (20th Dyn.) rpwy 'name of a holy ram'.
Chad. C.: Hwona wufi-ra 'she-goat', Logone (Kotoko) húfu 'goat'.
Cush. E.: Dobasepifa-ce 'female goat'.
[] See [SED II: ^ 49]; [AADB].
1.1.4. *?ayl- - *?al(l)Vy- 'ram, sheep'
S.em... *?ayl- 'ram': Akk. (?); Ugr.; Hbr., Aram.; ESA; Tña. (perhaps < Saho-Afar).
Berb. *ti-Hilay- 'sheep': Ahaggar té-helé, Ghat ci-hali, Taneslemt t-ilay, &c.
Cush. N.: Beja alli, pl. illi 'long-haired sheep'; E.: Saho ille, Afar illi 'small cattle', Arbore ?ellém, Elmolo ?élem 'ram' (both with -m suffixed); S.: Maía i?alé 'ram', i?alú 'sheep'.
[] Cf. [HSED: ^ 67]; [Bla. Beja: 233 - 234]; [SED II: ^ 24]; [AADB].
1.1.5. *(ya-)bVlaW/y- 'ram, goat'
Sem. *yabil- (perhaps < *wabil-) 'ram': Phoen., Hbr., Aram.; Arab. (?).
E.gxp... (OK, MK) ib,'w 'ovis tragelaphus)'.
Berb. *b/bal(l)i 'sheep, ram': Ghadames ta-bali, Audjila te-bel, Gurara, Tuat, Tidikelt belli (pl.).
Chad. W.: Geji mbila 'sheep' (cf. *baHil-Vm- 'horn': Montol bulu, Bolewa bóolúm, Galambu ball, Maha belem); C.: Boka bwsh 'goat', Matakam béláw 'race de mouton sp.' (cf. Chibak ts-mbslé 'horn'); E.: Lele búlóbúló 'he-goat', Kabalai bal, Migama bolíyo, Sokoro bal 'goat'.
Cush. E.: Oromo bulal-e 'lamb', Hadiya ambula 'ram', Kambatta ambula 'goat, ram'.
(?) Omot. S.: Dime bal-tu, Galila baali 'horn'.
[] Cf. [HSED: ^ 2570]; [SED II: ^ 245]; [AADB].
1.1.6. *ca?w- - *?acVw- 'small cattle; meat'
Sem. *ta?(w)-at- 'ewe': Ugr.; Aram.; Arab.; MSA.
(?) B.erb..: Canarian (all islands) chivato, chiva 'kid' (rather < Spanish chibo).
Chad. W.: Kariya cici 'goat', Gera caca 'she-goat' (redupl.); E.: Kwang cúwi 'he-goat'.
Cus.h. E.: Somali so?, Oromo fooni, Baiso so?o, Konso sowa, &c. 'meat' (Oromo f- points to *c).
Omot. N. *?acVw- 'meat, flesh': Koyra ?acco, Wolayta ?asuwa, Ganjule ?aco, Chara acca, Gimirra ?ac, Yamma asa, Dizi ?ac-ku.
[] See [SED II: ^ 236]; [AADB].
1.1.7. *(?a-)w/yVn- 'sheep, goat'
Sem.: Gur.: Cha. ona, Ezha onna 'young male goat or sheep' (though isolated in Sem., no tenable source of borrowing observed).
B.e.rb:-Can.: Tenerife ana, haña, jana 'sheep'.
(?) Egyp. (NK) wny 'calf (as a representation of Osiris)'.
Chad. W.: Siri yáaní 'she-goat' (cf. also *nVyVw- 'horn': Geji nowo, Boghom nyaw, Tule nyewó, &c.); E.: Migama i:ná, Jegu té-éné (pl. ?één), Birgit ?aynéy 'she-goat'.
Cush. N.: Beja ano - naa? 'sheep'; E.: Afar anai-to 'lamb (female)' ( -f in Auslaut is unexpected as it is not confirmed by Som.), Somali wan, pl. wanan 'ram', Rendille onó 'sheep'.
Omot. S.: Dime iin, (?) Ongota hoona 'sheep'.
[] Cf. [Bla. Beja: 234 - 235I
1.2.Large cattle
1.2.1. *lawi?- 'large cattle'
Sem. *lV?- (m.), *lV?-at- (f.) 'head of large cattle': Akk. littu (litu); Ebl. lí-a-núm 'cow'; Arab. la?a 'wild bull, buffalo'; Mhr. teháytdn 'cows', Jib. lé?, Soq. ?élheh 'cow'.
Egyp. (Pyr.) iwl 'bull' (if < *lVwV?-).
(?) Berb. Tuareg alu 'bull' (quoted in [EDE I: 86] as "Tamasheq", dialect name and source not specified).
Chad. W.: Dera láa 'cow', Pero ló 'animal, meat' (cf. also *la?u 'meat'); C.: Gude la 'cow'.
Cush. C. *luway 'cow' (Bilin luwt, &c.); E.: Saho, Afar la 'cow, cattle', LEC *lo?(lo?)- 'cows' (Somali lo?, Konso low-aa, &c.), HEC *lal- 'cows, cattle' (Sidamo lalo, &c.), Dullay *lo?-, pl. *le?-'cow' (Tsamay lo?o, pl. le?e, &c.), S.: Qwadza le?a-mu-ko 'bull'.
[] Cf. [HSED: ^ 1632]; [SED II: ^ 142]; [AADB]. Cf. Austric *lVw 'ox, cattle' ([GlDB]). Cf. metathetic *wa?Vl- 'calf, bull': Cush. E.: Somali weeyl, Hadiya wo?l-a 'calves'; Berb.: Izayan ta-wala 'troupeau de boeufs, sangliers' [LouB.: 583]. Cf. [EDE I: 86]; [HSED: ^ 2595].
1.2.2. *(f/?i-)gwal- 'calf; bull, cow'
Sem.. *figl- 'calf': Ebl. (?); Ugr.; Phoen., Hbr., Aram.; Arab.; Gez. (f/P9gwsl, Tgr. Pdgal )
Egyp. rgny, cow depicted (very likely < *fVgVl- ).
Chad. W.: Sayanchi gal, Geji gal 'cow'; C.: Bura gyel 'bull'.
Cush. S.: Dahalo ngolome 'male buffalo' (< *nV-gwVl-Vm-?).
Omot.. N.: Wolayta gallua, Zayse galo 'calf'.
"[] Cf. metathetic *CVlag- - *lVg^/p- 'calf, bull; (young of small cattle?)': Sem.: Arab. fuljum- 'old bull'; Tgr. laga 'male calf', Tna lagaf 'cow close to calving'; Chad. C. *lVg/y 'bull': Hidkala Mghd, Bachama luguley, &c.; Cush.. N.: Beja legha 'calf'; (?) S. *lagi?- 'goat': Alagwa lagay, Burunge legePi.
Cf. [HSED: ^ 1100]; [SED II: ^ 28]; [AADB].
1.2.3. *bVr- '(young) bull'
.Sem.: Akk. buru (puru) 'young calf', bTru 'bull (for breeding); young cattle (up to three years)'; Mand. bira 'domestic cattle'; Arab. (Yem. dial.) barah 'cow'; Tgr. bara 'ox', Amh. bare, Har. bara 'ox, bull', Gur. *bawr- 'ox (for farming)'. Cf. *bVfVr- 'household animal; beast of burden' ([SED II: ^ 53]), perhaps derived with a secondary -f-.
(?) Egyp. blwy 'arena, battlefield for bull-fight' (presumably a nisba < *bVr- 'bull', cf. [EDE II: 53 - 54]).
Chad. W.: Gera bara 'buffalo'; E.: Mokilko buru 'bull'.
Cush. N.: Beja bePray 'bull, cow' (< Eth.?); C. *bir- 'ox, bull' (Bilin bira, &c. < Eth.?); E.: Afar abur 'bull, ox', HEC *bor- 'young bull' (Sidamo boor-to, &c. < Eth.?)
Omot. N. *bariy- 'bull': Wolayta boora 'ox', Gamo boora 'bull', Zala bora 'ox' (acc. to Blench OLT 68, all three < Gur.), Chara biira (acc. to Blench ibid., < Agaw), Kafa bariyo 'calf', Mocha bariyo 'steer', Bworo bero, Sheko bariyo 'bull'.
[] Cf. [HSED: ^ 183]; [Bla. Beja: 238]; [SED II: ^ 53 notes.]; [EDE II: 54 - 55]; [AADB]. Cf. Nostr. *bVrV: Alt. *bioru 'calf, lamb', Drav. *padd-/*bar- 'heifer' ([GlDB[).
1.2.4. *?i/arw- 'calf; bull'
Sem. *Pi/arw-an— *?awr- 'calf, bull': Syr. Parwan- 'calf'; Arab. Piran- 'male oryx' (satu Piranin 'bull'); Amh. awra 'male (animal), dominant or alpha male; bull'; Gur. *ParaP/y- 'cows'.
Egyp. (MK) ir-t 'calf', (Dem.) iry-t 'milking cow'.
Berb. *-HirVy 'calf': Ayr ehsri, Shilh irey, &c.
Chad. W.: Dera wore, ara 'meat', Sha Parwa 'ox'.
Cush. N.: Beja oreo 'bull, steer', rew 'cow'; E.: Saho, Afar awr 'bull', LEC: Somali awr 'he-camel', Rendille or 'he-camel, bull', Oromo oor-oo 'burden camel', Arbore Paar , Dasenech ar 'bull', &c., HEC: Burji array, arPay 'bull', Pre 'calf'; Yaaku reheP 'calf'.
(?) Omot. N.: Malo hari 'cattle', Oyda (h)arr 'cow'.
[] Cf. ' [Bla. Beja: 236, 269]; [SED II: ^ 16]; [AADB].
1.2.5. *maray- 'calf, (young) bull, steer'
Sem.: Akk. miru 'young bull', mirtu 'cow' (Hbr. msrT(P) 'fatted steer' is not necessarily related being probably derived from the verbal root mrP 'to be fat').
Egyp. (MK) mr(y) 'fighting bull'.
Chad. C.: Matakam maray 'bull (for sacrifice)', Mofu-Gudur maray 'bull fattened in a stable'.
Cush. E.: LEC: Rendille maar 'male calf', maar 'fem. calf', Arbore maar 'calves' (coll.), HEC: Ha-diya moora 'older calf, Dullay: Harso, Dihina maar-akko, Tsamay maare 'heifer'; S.: Ma?a -moro 'steer'.
Omot. N.: Wolayta mara, Dorze mar, Male marro 'calf', Yamma omoru 'bull'; S.: Ongota marte 'calf (she)'.
[] Cf. Chad; W.: Hausa marTri 'white oryx', E.: Toram muro 'gazelle'. Cf. [HSED: ^1728]; [SED II: ^ 206]; [EDE III: 390 - 392]; [AADB]. Perhaps related to *(PV-)mar- 'lamb; ram' on the Pre-Proto-Afrasian level. Cf. Drav. *mur- 'buffalo; cow' ([GlDB]).
1.3. Common or mixed terms for small and large cattle
1.3.1. *(?a-)fVr- 'small and large cattle'
Sem. *parr- (1) 'lamb' (Akk.parru; Syr.parr-, Mnd. par-; Arab. furar-, farur-), (2) 'cattle' (Ugr. pr ; Hbr. par 'bull, steer',para 'cow', Aram. (Sam.)pr 'bull',prh 'cow'; Tgr. fdrrdt 'pasturing herd',
mafrar 'herd (of cows)', Amh. afwara 'to become a yearling ox'; (?) MSA: Mhr. for (pl. faharin) 'young bull', Jib. fofor 'young bull, male calf', Soq. fafhar 'young bull' (with a secondary -f-).
Chad. C. *faray- 'buffalo; cattle': Mbara faray 'cattle; dot (bride wealth)'; there are also Bura fir, Kilbafur, Margifur 'buffalo', but they are considered < *fun-, about which I have some doubts.
Cush.. E.: Yaaku apur 'sheep'; S.: Asa ?eferet, ?oforok, Qwadza afulatu 'he-goat'.
[] Cf. [HSED: ^ 1950]; [SED II: ^ 181]; [AADB].
1.3.2. *cayw/2- '(meat of) small or large cattle'
Sem. *saw- 'head of small cattle': Akk.; Ugr.; Phoen, Hbr.; Arab.; ESA (Sab.).
Egyp.. ( MK) sly 'pig' (cf. also sw 'ass').
Chad. W. *ca- 'cow': Siri zaa-ti, Jimi, Polchi saa, Dwot, Buli, Zul, Ngizim saa (cf. also *caw-'meat'); C. *sa- 'cow': Tera za, Bura, Margi, Gisiga sa, &c. (cf. also *suw- 'meat')
Cush. S. *sa?e- 'cow': Iraqw, Alagwa, Burunge see, Asa se-ok, Qwadza sae-ko.
Omot. N. *?ays- - *sa?- 'goat': Bworo eyssa, Mao (Hozo) saa, (Ganza) sa?a, Dizi es-ku.
[] Cf. [HSED: ^ 517]; [SED II: ^ 217]; [AADB].
1.3.3. *p/fVl- '(young of) hoofed domestic animals'
Sem. *pVlw/y- 'foal, small of domestic animals': Arab. filw-, faluww-, fuluww- 'a yearling foal or ass already weaned'; Tgr. falit 'calf', faluy 'calf weaned'; Soq. folhi 'a yearling calf' (in Tgr. and Soq.borrowing from Arabic is possible).
(?) Chad. W.: Guruntum fwull 'cow' (isolated term).
Cush... N.: Beja filay 'she-camel just foaled' (borrowing from Arabic or Tigre not to be ruled out); C. *fiyal- 'goat' (Aungi fayali, &c.); E.: HEC *filla?- 'goat' (Kambatta felle-ccu, pl. felle?u, &c.).
Omot. N.: Kafa fell 'goat' (Blench OLT 71) < HEC?
[] Cf. [Bla. Beja: 246]; [SED II: ^ 174]; [AADB].
1.3.4. *dVbal- 'pig / boar, ram, goat, calf'
Sem.: Arb. dawbal- 'wild boar, suckling pig', Gez. dabela 'billy goat, bull, male of any animal', Tgr. dabela 'ram', Tna. dibala, Amh. dabela, dabal 'billy goat' ([LGz.: 120 - 121]; in view of a tenable Arab. parallel, less likely < Cush. as Leslau asserts, while E. Cush.: Saho, Afar dabeela 'billy goat' are rather borrowed from Eth.).
Cush...N.: Beja debala 'yearling cow'; E.: Baiso dabaalo 'heifer' (cf. in [Bla. Beja: 243]).
[] Cf. [Bla. Beja: 269]; [AADB].
2. Pasturing, foraging and tending livestock
2.1. *g(w)Vc- 'to tend, drive livestock' - *gicac- 'pasture'
Sem. *gwVsVy/p- 'to tend cattle': (?) Arb. js? 'produce vegetation (soil); emigrate (tribe)'; ijtassa 'be covered with dense grass (soil)' (to be interpreted as 'to migrate with the animals to grassy pastures'?); Gez. gwasaya 'to tend cattle' ([LGz.: 205]: < Tna.?), Tna. gwasaya id., (?) Endegen, Gyeto g'isasa 'field, plain, meadow, open space' (according to [LGur.: 299], < Hadiya); Soq. ges 'to pasture, drive cattle', gesis 'pasture'.
Cush... C.: Kemant gasas 'pasture'; E.: Hadiya gisasa, Burji giis- 'to graze'. Cf. E.: Somali gos-'to ply between two places'.
Omot. N.: Kafa gas- 'drive one's cows to pasture'.
[J [AADB].
2.2. *rViVy/w- 'to pasture, tend livestock; chase; accompany, follow'
Sem. *rVfVy- 'to pasture, herd (trans.); be herdsman, friend, companion': Akk. re?u 'to pasture, guard livestock, herd, graze (trans.)', ru?u 'friend, companion'; Ugr. rfy 'herdsman', rf 'friend, companion'; Hbr. rfy 'to pasture, guard livestock, herd, graze; join, associate with', rofa 'herdsman', r<?f 'friend, companion'; Syr. rafa 'to pasture, herd'; ESA (Sab.) rfy id.; Arab. rfy id., raf- 'herdsman'; Gez. rafya 'herdsman', rafawa 'to yoke, join', Tigre rafa 'to pasture, herd', rawfa 'have intercourse'; Mhr. ro 'to pasture, herd', refi 'herder', Jib. rafe 'to pasture, herd', refi 'friend, companion', Soq. refe 'to pasture, herd'.
(?) Egyp. (OK)ylc, verb connected with handling calves ([EG I: 27]; [EDE III: 50]; related if < *yrf).
Chad. W.: Diri rawa(n), Tsagu ra?a 'to herd, graze' (perhaps < Arab.); E.: Bidiya ?araw 'chase' (< *iaraw-, with metathesis ?).
Cus.h... E.: Somali raai- 'to accompany, go together' (in view of other LEC parallels, hardly < Sem.), Boni raa, Rendille rah 'to follow', Oromo ari?a 'to pursue, chase'; S.: *iaro (met.?) 'ruminated fodder, grass' (Iraqw iaaroo, &c.)
[] [AADB]. The original meaning may be 'to pasture' or 'to chase, follow (wild ungulates)'.
2.3. *(na-)kid- 'shepherd of small cattle'
Sem.: Akk. nakidu 'herdsman'; Ugr. nkd 'shepherd'; Hbr. noked 'shepherd, sheep-breeder', pB. 'lamb'; Arab. nakkad- 'shepherd' ([HALOT]; not in [BK]), nakad- 'kind of ram' (BK 2 1321; cf. nakd- 'silver, money' ibid.).
Berb:: Ayr, E. Tawllemmet s-yadyad 'herd of goats'.
Om.ot. N.: Moca qiddo 'shepherd', Kafa qido 'guardian'.
[] [AADB]. A promising root, though not quite reliable because of scarce data.
2.4. *cVh- 'pasture, to pasture, to herd'
Sem.: Akk. sahhu (sahu) 'meadow, waterlogged land' (-h- < *-h- is possible--cf. Kog.); Arab. shh 'to be very fat (of rams)'; Tna. sawhi 'meadow, ever-green pasture'.
(?) Egyp. (OK) sh?-t 'herd of donkeys'.
Chad. W.: Wrj. ciys, Siri cagu, Sha co 'to herd, graze', (?) Dera jiwa 'herd'.
Cus.h.. C.: Kemant seha 'prairie'.
[] Cf. [HSED: ^ 385]; [AADB]. Not quite reliable because of phonetic problems and semantic diversity.
2.5. *kwal- 'forage, fodder; pasture; mowing, collecting, gleaning'
Sem.. *kwala?- 'forage', *kwVlVw- 'to mow': Akk. ukullu 'cattle fodder, forage'; Arab. kl? 'abound in forage (area)', kala?- 'forage (dry or fresh)'; Gez. kwalawa 'to reap, mow' ([LGz.: 284D, makala, makkola (acc. to Leslau, for makkwala; secondary derivation with m- prefixed) 'to cut with a sickle, mow' ([iBiD.: 339]), Tgr. maklay 'halm of durra, halm of corn', Tna. makala 'to mow, cut', Amh. kslksl 'pasture'; cf. Jib. kelet 'bush with edible twigs'.
Berb. *kVlkVl- 'pick up, collect': Ahaggar kelukelu , Ayr kslsnkilet (with a secondary -n-).
Chad. W.: Hausa kala 'gleaning'; E.: Lele kel 'pick up, collect'.
Cus.h.. C. (?) Khamir kilkil 'pasture' (likely a loan of Amh. kdlkdl) : E.: Oromo kalo 'pasture land', Kambatta kalu, Sidamo, Burji kalo 'pasture' (probably borrowed from Oromo).
[] [AADB]. To separate from *kal(a?)- 'earth, land' (see [Mil.: ^ 23]).
2.6. *?Vry- 'cattle-shed'
Sem. *?u/arVy- 'stall': Akk. uru 'stall'; Hbr. *?urwa (HALOT: "from Akk.-Sum. uru > Aram > Arab.") 'stall'; Jud. ?urya, Syr. ?orya; Arb. ?ariy-, ?iry- id.
Cus.h.. E. *?ari-t- 'gate of animal pen': Somali irid-i, Rendille ar'it (< *arit Hei. 74).
[] [AADB]. Not A promising root, though not quite reliable because of scarce data.
Products of stock-raising
*sim-an- 'fat milk; to milk, suck; butter, oil, fat'
Sem. samVn- 'fat, oil, butter': Akk. samnu 'oil, fat'; Ugr. smn; Hbr. saman 'oil, fat', Syr. sumn, Mnd.samin 'fat', Mailula somna 'butter'; Arab. samn- 'fat; melted) butter'; Jib. sen 'fat'.
Egyp. (Med.) smy 'fat milk, cream'.
B.e_rb;-Can.: Ahaggar esim 'melted fat', Ghat isim 'animal fat', Qabyle ta-sssm-t id., summ 'to suck'; Can. (Ferro) achemen 'milk'.
Chad. W.: Somrai si-s§m, Sokoro ?z>-simS 'to suck (sugar)'.
Cus.h.. N: Beja simuum 'suet, fatty covering of kidneys'; E.: LEC *sihim- with a secondary -h?): Somali sihin- 'curds', Rendille sihime 'butter', Dullay *sinam-(met.?): Dalpena siinan-ko, pl. siinam-aane 'butter', Gollango siinan-ko, pl. sinam-aane 'fat'; S.: Iraqw ismoo 'nipple', Qwadza sum- 'to milk', Ma?a semu 'breast'.
[] Cf. [HSED: ^ 2247]; [SED I: ^ 248]; [AADB]; [Bla. Review: 505].
*sVPIfVy- 'churned milk, curds'
Sem.: Hbr. sapot 'cheese or curds (made of cow's milk)'.
Cush. N.: Beja sefi 'drink milk'; E.: HEC *saff- 'to churn' (Kambatta saffo, &c.).
[] [AADB].
Livestock as a socio-economic category
*g(w)ijj- 'domestic animals as possessions, property'
_S_em.: Arb. jwz 'go, march, drive beasts of burden and riding animals, take them to watering place', IV 'give so. a certain sum of money'; Gez. gaz, gaza, gizan 'treasury, wealth, money' (acc. to [LGz.: 210]: "< Greek ya^a; also occurs in Aram.-Syr. gazza going back to Median ganza", which is questionable in view of Semitic and Afrasian parallels), Gafat gazza 'cattle, money', gazza 'to master', Wol., Zw. gazat, Sel. gazat 'cows, domestic animals, cattle', Muh., Gog., Sod. gazz 'cows, domestic animals, cattle', Sod. gazzoday 'shepherd' (Acc. to Leslau: "probably passed into Cushitic... The root could also be common to Semitic-Ethiopic and Cushitic"; the latter suggestion is more likely than the former as the meaning 'cattle' is not attested in Amharic, a plausible source of borrowing into HEC and N. Omot., which can hardly borrow terms meaning 'cattle' and 'money' from Gafat or Gurage dialects).
Berb.: Zenaga a-guzzih 'herd of sheep'.
Cush. E.: Kambatta gizza 'cattle', Tembaro gazza 'money, cattle', Hadiya godda 'cattle, property, wealth'.
Omot. N.: Kafa gijjo 'livestock, money, welfare, possessions', Chara giza, gijja id., She giz 'welfare, possessions', Mao (Sezo) gizzi, (Hozo) gitza 'cattle'.
[] [AADB]. Perhaps related to Eth. *giz(z)- 'cattle, money' is Eth. *gz? 'to master, possess': Gez. ?agzi? 'master', Tgr. gaz?a 'to possess, dominate', Tna. gaz?a 'to possess, buy', Amh. gazza 'to possess, buy, govern' ([LGz. 210]), Gur. *gaza 'to own, possess, govern, &c.' ([LGur. 304]).
*mal- 'livestock (as a source of milk or meat, or as a capital); tend livestock':
_Sem.: Arab. mwl 'be rich, esp. in livestock', mal- 'herd of camels; richness'; ESA (Sab.) mly 'to get, win, obtain as booty', mlt 'loot, booty, prize of war'; Tgr. mal 'money, fortune, property', Tna. mal 'herd (of livestock); goods, property, wealth'; Mhr. mol 'livestock, capital', malet 'she-camel', Jib. mol 'livestock, capital', Soq. mal 'richness'. The N. Eth. and MSA forms meaning 'livestock, capital' are most probably Arabisms while Mhr. malet 'she-camel' is not necessarily so. Cf. also Hrs. melet 'bride-price' and Muh. muli (however, Chaha, Eza, Endegen, Gyeto muri) 'boy to whom a girl is given by her parents without being asked for by his parents'.
(?) Egyp. (ME) mnmn-t 'herd' (if< *mVlmVl-); mny (MK or NK) 'herdsman' (if < *mVly; cf., however, Coptic Fayumic mani id., with -n- instead of the expected -l-). Cf. mny 'marry; endow with' (in [Faul.: 104] combined with 'to moor', 'attach', 'save' and 'die', semantic connections not quite clear).
Berb. *-malVy- 'camel, stallion, not castrated animal': Ghadames amali 'stallion camel', Ghat a-mali 'stallion', Ahaggar amali, Ayr amalay, E. Tawllemmet amelay (cf. Ahaggar amhal 'to push ahead, drive (animals, livestock)', Ayr amhal 'to advance, push ahead' < *mV?Vl ?).
Chad.. W.: Jimi maalo, Geji maal 'goat' (acc. to [EDE III: 42], < *mar-, see 1.1.1); C.: Masa mdl- 'to assemble (a herd of animals)'; (?) E.: Mokilko maala 'welth, dowry, property' (maalado, maldo 'my property, my herd'), W. Dangla mala, E. Dangla malle 'herds, animals, cattle; riches' (would be undoubtedly labelled Arabisms if not for W. and C. Chad. forms that are evidently not, which leaves room for some doubts).
Cush. C.: Kemant, Qwara malt, Kailina mil-d- 'to look after (cattle), tend flocks' (Bilin mal 'herd, livestock, richness' is, acc. to [Appl.: 83], from Tgr. or Tna.); E.: LEC: Somali maal 'livestock that provide milk' (maal, Rendille maal 'to milk'), (?) Oromo mil- 'to guard'; HEC: Burji malal- 'to herd', maalat-e 'lending out of cattle' (cf. also Sidamo, Darasa, Qabenna maal-a, Burji maal-a 'meat'); (?) Dullay: Gollango mila 'fresh, cool milk' .
Omot. N.: Haruro malinay 'herdsman', Koyra male 'cow'.
[] Cf. [Lamb. 474]: Koyra (comp. to unrelated Omot. forms); HEC; Som. (Saho-Afar 'money' is evidently < Arab.). Cf. [EDE III: 254, 294 and 72] (acc. to Takacs, Berb. Tuareg forms meaning 'stallion, camel' "look rather like *m- prefix participial derivations from Berb. *l-y 'to mount' = *a-hl^Iiy, which looks rather far-fetched for several reasons, one being lack of h- in these forms, another, strange semantic development).
Abbreviations of languages and language periods
Akkadian; Amharic; Arabic; Aramaic; Berber; Central; Canarian; Chadic; Cushitic; Demotic;
Dynasty; East; Egyptian; ESA — Epigraphic South Arabian; Ethiopian; Gafat; Gez. — Geçez; Gu-
rage; Harari; HEC — Highland East Cushitic; Hbr. — Hebrew; Hrs. — Harsusi; Jibbali; Judaic
Aramaic; LEC — Lowland East Cushitic; Medical Texts; Mhr. — Mehri; MK — Middle Kingdom;
Mnd. — Mandaic Aramaic; MSA — Modern South Arabian; North; NK — New Kingdom; OK —
Old Kingdom; Omotic; Phoenician; Pyramid Texts; South; Sabaic; Selti; Semitic; Soddo; Soqotri;
Syrian Aramaic; Tna. — Tigrinna (= Tigray); Tgr. — Tigre; Ugr. — Ugaritic; West; Wolane.
Bibliographic References and Abbreviations
AADB — Afrasian Database, sites: http://ehl.santafe.edu and http://starling.rinet.ru.
Appl. — D. A. Appleyard. Comparative Dictionary of the Agaw Languages II Kuschitische Sprachstudien ~ Cushitic Language Studies, Band 24. Köln. 2006.
Bar-Yossef — O. Bar-Yossef. The Natufian Culture and the Early Neolithic: Social and Economic Trends in South-Western Asia II Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis / eds. P. Bellwood & C. Renfrew. McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge. 2002; pp. 113 - 126.
BK — A. de Biberstein-Kazimirski. Dictionnaire arabe-français. Paris. 1860.
Bla. Beja — V. Blazek. Fauna in Beja Lexicon: A Fragment of a Comparative-Etymological Dictionary of Beja II Studia Semitica: FS for A. Militarev (= Orientalia: Труды Института восточных культур, III (Papers of the Oriental Institute, III]). Moscow. 2003; pp. 230 - 294.
Bla. Review — V. Blazek. Semitic Etymological Dictionary I. Archiv orientàlni, Vol. 69. 2001; pp. 495 - 510.
Blench ALAP — R. Blench. Archaeology, Language and the African Past. Lanham. 2006.
Blench OLT — R. Blench. Omotic Livestock Terminology and Its Implication for the History of Afro-asiatic. Semito-Hamitic Festschrift for A. B. Dolgopolsky and H. Jungraithmayr / Ed. G. Takacs. 2008; pp. 63 - 78.
Coh. — M. Cohen. Essai comparatif sur le vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique. Paris. 1947.
Diak. ESA — I. Diakonoff. Earliest Semites in Asia. Agriculture and Animal Husbandry According to Linguistic Data (VIIIth - IVth Millennia B.C.) II Altorientalische Forschungen, 8. 198l; pp. 23 - 74.
Diak. Sum. — И. М. Дьяконов. Шумеры и афразийцы глазами историка II Вестник древней истории, № 4. 1996; стр. 81 - 86 (I. M. Diakonoff. Sumerians and Afrasians through the Eyes of a Historian II Journal of Ancient History, № 4. 1996]; pp. 81 - 86.
Dolg. Cush. — A. Б. Долгопольский. Сравнительно-историческая фонетика кушитских языков. М.. 1973 (A. B. Dolgopolsky. Comparative-Historical Phonetics of Cushitic. Moscow. 1973].
EDE I — G. Takacs. Etymological Dictionary of Egyptian, Volume One: A Phonological Introduction. Leiden-Boston (Ma) & Cologne. 1999
EDE II — G. Takacs. Etymological Dictionary of Egyptian, Volume Two. Leiden-Boston (MA) & Cologne. 2001.
EDE III — G. Takacs. Etymological Dictionary of Egyptian, Volume Three. Leiden-Boston. 2008.
Ehr. EEA — Ch. Ehret. Ethiopians and East Africans. The Problems of Contacts. Nairobi. 1974.
Ehr. LFE — Ch. Ehret. Language Family Expansions: Broadening our Understanding of Cause from an African Perspective II Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis / eds. P. Bellwood & C. Renfrew. McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge. 2002; pp. 163 - 176.
Ehr. PA — Ch. Ehret. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian). Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. Berkeley, Los Angeles. 1995.
EG — Wörterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache / Im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien hrsg. von Adolf Erman & Hermann Grapow. Erster Band: 1961 [1971]; Zweiter Band: 1955 [1971]; Dritter Band: 1954 [1971]; Vierter Band: 1957 [1971]; Fünfter Band: 1954 [1971]; Sechster Band (Deutsch-Aegypti-sches Wörterverzeichnis. In alphabetischer und sachlicher Ordung. Nebst Verzeichnissen der koptischen, semitischen und griechischen Wörter): 1950 [1957]; Siebenter Band (Rückläufiges Wörterverzeichnis / bearb. von W. F. Reineke): 1963 [1971]. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
Faul. — R. O. Faulkner. A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian. Oxford. 1962.
GlDB — Global Database, sites: http://ehl.santafe.edu and http://starling.rinet.ru.
Gr. — J. Greenberg. The Languages of Africa. The Hague. 1963.
HALOT — L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament I - III. Leiden, New York & Köln. IV - V. Leiden, Boston & Köln. 1994 - 1996, 1999 - 2000. Hass. — F. Hassan. Archaeology and Linguistic Diversity in North Africa II Examining the Farming/ Language Dispersal Hypothesis / Eds. P. Bellwood & C. Renfrew. McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge. 2002; pp. 127 - 133. HCVA = Diakonoff et al. 1994 - 1997 — Historical-Comparative Vocabulary of Afrasian II St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies, 2 (1994): pp. 5 - 28; 3 (1994): pp. 5 - 26; 4 (1995): pp. 7 - 38; 5 (1995): pp. 4 - 32; 6 (1997): pp. 12 - 35. Hei. — B. Heine. The Sam Languages: A history of Rendille, Boni and Somali II Afroasiatic Linguistics, 6/2. 1978. 23 - 116. HSED — V. Orel and O. Stolbova. Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary. Materials for a Reconstruction. Leiden - New York - Köln. 1995. I-S — В. М. Иллич-Свитыч. Опыт сравнения ностратических языков (семитохамитский, картвельский, индоевропейский, уральский, дравидийский, алтайский): Введение. Сравнительный словарь. М.: «Наука» [An Attempt at Comparative Dictionary of the Nostratic Languages (Semito-Hamitic, Kartvelian, Indo-European, Uralic, Dravidian, Altaic). Moscow: "Nauka" publishers]. V. 1 (b - K): 1971; V. 2 (l -j): 1976; V. 3 (p - q): 1984. Kog. — Л. Е. Коган. О нерегулярных рефлексах семитских ларингалов в аккадском языке [On Irregular Reflexes of Proto-Semitic Laryngeals in Akkadian] II Вестник древней истории [Journal of Ancient History] 2. 1995; pp. 156 - 162. Lamb. — M. Lamberti and R. Sottile. The Wolaytta Language. Köln. 1997. LGur. — W. Leslau. Etymological Dictionary of Gurage (Ethiopic). Vol. III. Wiesbaden. 1979. LGz. — W. Leslau. Comparative Dictionary of Ge'ez (ClassicalEthiopic). Wiesbaden. 1987. Mil. — A. Militarev. The Prehistory of a Dispersal: The Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic) Farming Lexicon II Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis / eds. P. Bellwood & C. Renfrew. McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge. 2002; pp. 135 - 150. Pelt. — E. Peltenburg & al. Agro-Pastoralist Colonization of Cyprus in the 10th Millennium BP:
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Резюме
Статья — очередной шаг в направлении отождествления автором картины жизни носителей праафразий-ского (ПАА), или прасемито-хамитского, языка, реконструируемой по общеафразийской лексике, с ранне-неолитической постнатуфийской археологической культурой Восточного Средиземноморья. ПАА язык накануне распада датируется автором по глоттохронологическому методу С. А. Старостина 10 тыс. до н. э. — тем же временем, что и постнатуф (предполагаемая родина земледелия и скотоводства на планете) по радио-карбонным датировкам. Статья посвящена доказательствам наличия в ПАА языке скотоводческой лексики. Приводятся 26 реконструированных названий мелкого и крупного рогатого скота и хозяйственных терминов. Лексическим данным предшествует краткое описание ситуации в современном сравнительно-историческом афразийском языкознании и изложение авторских принципов и приемов этимологического анализа и реконструкции праязыковой лексики, а также разработанных им методов сопоставления лингвистических и археологических данных для установления прародины языковых семей.
