CC BY
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Robert Pieca)*, Barbara Szykuta-Pieca), Aneta tukaszek-Chmielewskaa), Krzysztof Isajenkob), Iwona Stoneckab)
a) The Main School of Fire Service / Szkota Gfowna Sfuzby Pozarniczej
b) Central Laboratory for Radiological Protection / Centralne Laboratorium Ochrony Radiologicznej * Corresponding author / Autor korespondencyjny: rpiec@sgsp.edu.pl
Short-Term Measurements of Radon Concentrations in Selected Residential Buildings Krotkoterminowe pomiary st^zenia radonu w wybranych budynkach mieszkalnych
ABSTRACT
Aim: This article presents the results of radon concentration measurements performed in selected residential buildings using PicoRad carbon detectors. In addition, the need to provide information on the risk of exposure to radon radiation and the possible ways to minimise that risk is also emphasized. Project and methods: Measurements were performed in the rooms which are the most exposed to ionizing radiation from radon: in basements and on ground floors, with PicoRad carbon detectors being used to that end. The detectors were provided to a selected and properly trained group of students who had the task to place them in the studied atmosphere for 48 hours. After the measurements had been taken, the detectors, once hermetically closed and foil-enveloped, had to be sent immediately to the indicated address.
Results: The average concentration of radon in the air in Poland is about 10 Bq/m3. The results of the research carried out in residential buildings show that the mean radon concentration value in the studied rooms was 30 Bq/m3. The obtained value, although it was higher than the average concentration, did not exceed the values specified by the applicable radon concentration standards for residential buildings. No significant differences between the basements and the ground floor were noticed.
Conclusions: The measurements revealed that the average concentrations of radon in the studied rooms were relatively low, within the limits of 12-85.5 Bq/m3. However, it is worth taking into account the fact that, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), the risk of lung cancer development increases proportionally to the increase in exposure to radon. It grows by 16% per a 100 Bq/m3 increase in the average long-term radon concentration. WHO handbook on indoor radon: A public health perspective recommends to set the national average concentration level of reference to 100 Bq/m3, but if this level cannot be reached, the reference level should not exceed 300 Bq/m3. The highest radon concentrations obtained through the measurements were only slightly lower than the average reference level recommended by WHO, reaching 85.5 Bq/m3. This indicates that such measurements of radon concentrations should be performed in buildings in Poland. Information on the possibility of performing such measurements, on specific countermea-sures, and also on the threats posed by high levels of radon should be given to the public in order to raise the general awareness and minimise risks. This appears particularly important from the point of view of strengthening the community's resilience. Keywords: radon, radiation from natural sources, concentration of radon, social awareness Type of article: short scientific report
Received: 15.11.2019; Reviewed: 29.11.2019; Accepted: 17.12.2019;
Authors" ORCID IDs: R. Piec - 0000-0002-5234-5639; B. Szykuta-Piec - 0000-0002-4533-232X; A. tukaszek-Chmielewska - 0000-0002-8356-5175; K. Isajenko - 0000-0002-9437-3988; I. Stonecka - 0000-0001-7746-5998;
Percentage contributon: R. Piec - 40%; B. Szykuta-Piec - 31%; A. tukaszek-Chmielewska - 15%; K. Isajenko - 7%; I. Stonecka - 7%;
Please cite as: SFT Vol. 54 Issue 2, 2019, pp. 168-173, https://doi.org/10.12845/sft.54.2.2019.13;
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/).
ABSTRAKT
Cel: W artykule przedstawiono wyniki pomiaröw st^zenia radonu w wybranych budynkach mieszkalnych przy uzyciu detektoröw w^gla PicoRad. Podkreslono potrzebQ informowania o zagrozeniu zwiqzanym z narazeniem na promieniowanie radonowe, a takze na mozliwosc jego minimalizacji. Projekt i metody: Pomiary przeprowadzono w pomieszczeniach najbardziej narazonych na promieniowanie jonizujqce - w piwnicach i na parterze - za pomocq detektoröw w^gla PicoRad. Detektory przekazano wybranej, wyszkolonej grupie studentöw, ktorej zadaniem bylo umieszczenie detektora w badanej atmosferze na 48 godzin. Po wykonaniu pomiaröw przygotowany detektor musial zostac natychmiast wyslany na wskazany adres. Wyniki: Srednie st^zenie radonu w powietrzu w Polsce wynosi ok. 10 Bq/m3. Wyniki badan przeprowadzonych w budynkach pokazujq, ze srednie stQ-zenie radonu w analizowanych pomieszczeniach wynosi 30 Bq/m3. Wartosci te nie przekraczajq norm koncentracji radonu w domach. Nie zauwazono istotnych röznic mi^dzy piwnicami a parterem.
Wnioski: Przeprowadzone pomiary pokazuj^, ze srednie st^zenia radonu w badanych pokojach s^ stosunkowo niskie i mieszcz^ si§ w granicach 12-85,5 Bq/m3. Warto jednak wziqc pod uwag§ fakt, ze wedlug Swiatowej Organizacji Zdrowia ryzyko rozwoju raka pluc wzrasta proporcjonalnie do wzrostu narazenia na dzialanie radonu. Zwi^ksza si§ o 16% na 100 Bq/m3 wzrostu dlugoterminowego sredniego st^zenia radonu. W przewodniku WHO
na temat radonu wewnçtrznego zaleca siç ustalenie sredniego krajowego poziomu stçzenia odniesienia na 100 Bq/m3. Jesli osiggniçcie tych wartosci nie jest mozliwe, poziom odniesienia nie powinien przekraczac 300 Bq/m3. Najwyzsze zmierzone stçzenia radonu byly tylko nieznacznie nizsze od sredniego poziomu odniesienia zalecanego przez WHO. Wskazuje to, ze takie pomiary stçzerï radonu nalezy wykonywac w budynkach w Polsce. Informacja o mozliwosci dokonania takich pomiarow, a takze o zagrozeniach i srodkach zaradczych, zwigzanych z wysokimi poziomami radonu, powinna zostac podana do wiadomosci publicznej. Pozwoli to na zwiçkszenie swiadomosci spolecznej, minimalizacjç ryzyka zwigzanego z narazeniem na oddzialywanie radonu oraz wzmocnienie odpornosci spolecznosci.
Stowa kluczowe: radon, promieniowanie ze zrodel naturalnych, stçzenie radonu, swiadomosc spoleczna Typ artykutu: doniesienie wstçpne
Przyjçty: 15.11.2019; Zrecenzowany: 29.11.2019; Zatwierdzony: 17.12.2019;
Identyfikatory ORCID autorow: R. Piec - 0000-0002-5234-5639; B. Szykula-Piec - 0000-0002-4533-232X; A. tukaszek-Chmielewska - 0000-0002-83565175; K. Isajenko - 0000-0002-9437-3988; I. Slonecka - 0000-0001-7746-5998;
Procentowy wklad merytoryczny: R. Piec - 40%; B. Szykula-Piec - 31%; A. tukaszek-Chmielewska - 15%; K. Isajenko - 7%; I. Slonecka - 7%;
Proszç cytowac: SFT Vol. 54 Issue 2, 2019, pp. 168-173, https://doi.org/10.12845/sft.54.2.2019.13;
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/).
Introduction
As many as 264 stable atomic nuclei, i.e. those that are not subject to decays, and nearly 2,450 unstable decaying nuclei, called radioactive nuclei, have been identified to date [1]. As revealed by 2018 data, a Polish resident received an average dose of ionizing radiation of approximately 3.74 mSv throughout the calendar year. Most of that dose came from natural sources, accounting for about 2.43 mSv/year, and 32% of that was radon radiation. The dose received by an average Pole from artificial sources was estimated at 1.31 mSv [2]. The total annual dose of ionizing radiation received by an average inhabitant of Poland in recent years has changed slightly; in 2017, it was 3.56 mSv [3], while in 2016, it was 3.55 mSv [4]. Radon is a colourless and odourless gas, heavier than air, and soluble in water. It belongs to radioactive chemical elements from the group of noble gases. The average dose coming from radon has a relatively large range - from 1 mSv/year to even 10 mSv/year [5]. This mainly results from the geological structure of the area. Summing up all the radiation doses, it can be assumed that in recent years an average inhabitant of Poland has received about 3.62 mSv in a calendar year from both natural and artificial sources [2], [3], [6]. According to literature [7-1 0], the dose received by an average Pole is much lower than in some other regions of the world. In the state of Kerala (India), an average resident receives over 13 mSv/year, in Guarapari (Brazil) about 790 mSv/year, and in Lodeve and Lauragais (France) about 870 mSv/year. Nevertheless, it should be remembered that the following statement is one of the most important recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) concerning radiological protection: "No practice involving exposure to radiation should be allowed unless this practice brings sufficient benefits to the exposed people or society, outweighing the detriments caused by radiation in the form of health damage associated with this practice" [11].
Methodology
Radon concentration measurements were performed in selected buildings using PicoRad carbon detectors. These are measuring devices that use the commercially available Accuspec carbon detectors in the form of small cylinders, comprising a transparent gas container with activated carbon and with a mixed vapour sorbent. To measure the frequency of scintillation, the detector is placed in a photomultiplier well. Knowing the date and time of the start and end of exposure, the date and time of flooding with the scintillator, as well as the measurement time in the counter and the temperature during exposure, the concentration of radon is calculated using the TRI CARB 1900 liquid scintillation analyser counter manufactured by Packard-Canberra, with software for converting the measured frequency into radon concentration data. The lower detection threshold of the PicoRad system is approximately 11 Bq/m3 for a two-day exposure [12].
The detectors were given to a selected group of properly trained postgraduate students of the Main School of Fire Service, specialising in the safety of nuclear energy, who had to place these devices in the studied rooms for 48 hours. Once the measurements had been completed, they had to immediately send the detectors back to the indicated address, i.e. to the Central Laboratory for Radiological Protection (CLOR) in Warsaw. Table 1 features the localities where the students performed the measurements.
Radon concentration measurements with PicoRad detectors were performed in accordance with the following procedure [13]:
1. Close hermetically the room in which the measurement is taken at least the day before the measurement starts (close the doors and windows).
2. Place the detector in the basement not closer than 1 m from the walls (if there is no basement in the building, the detector should be placed on the ground floor).
3. Open the detector (remove the cap) and place it in the
studied atmosphere for 48 hours. Write down the date and time of the measurement start.
4. During the measurement, close the room and, if possible, do not get in the room.
5. After the exposure, screw the cap hermetically and write down the date and time of the end of exposure, as well as the average ambient temperature during exposure.
6. Send the detector back, hermetically closed and foil-enveloped, together with the following information:
- the date and time of the measurement start,
- the date and time of the measurement end,
- the average temperature of the room during the measurement,
- the place in which the measurement was performed (type of the building - a free-standing house or a block of flats, the basement or the ground floor),
- the detector number (as per the sticker on the detector),
- the name and surname of the person who performed the measurement,
- the locality in which the measurement was taken,
7. Immediately after the study, send the detector back to the indicated address.
Reading was done by the Central Laboratory for Radiological Protection (CLOR) in Warsaw.
Table 1. Localities where the students performed radon concentration measurements
Locality Voivodeship
Ludzmierz near Nowy Targ Matopolskie
Jastrzçbie Zdroj Slqskie
Pita Wielkopolskie
Nowy Sqcz Matopolskie
Krakow Matopolskie
Sosnicowice Slqskie
Zakrzew Mazowieckie
Szerzyny Matopolskie
Katowice Slqskie
Kçdzierzyn-Kozle Opolskie
Leszno Wielkopolskie
Sanok Podkarpackie
Opole Opolskie
Kielanowka Podkarpackie
Oswiçcim Matopolskie
Biatystok Podlaskie
Stryszawa Matopolskie
Wroctaw Dolnoslqskie
Source: Own elaboration based on the research results.
Results
The results of radon concentration measurements are presented in Table 2. All the studies were conducted either in the basements or on ground floors of buildings where people live or work. The exposure time was two days (48 hours).
In the PicoRad method, errors in measuring radon concentrations are likely to result from errors in measuring the average number of pulse counts per minute. These measurements were performed with an error of 25, not exceeding 10% for low radon concentrations and 5% for concentrations greater than 20 Bq/m3.
Research analysis
In Poland, the average radon concentration in the open air reaches around 10 Bq/m3 [5]. An increased value of radon activity can be observed in south-western Poland (Swieradow 24 Bq/m3, Kowary 30 Bq/m3) due to the geological structure of this region and soil type (the presence of areas with exposed magma rocks - the Sudetes) [5]. Furthermore, the atmospheric conditions impact on the amount of radon exhalation from the ground. Another important source of radon presence in buildings are building materials since natural minerals are used in their production. In addition, due to the solubility of radon in water, another source of its presence comes from ground waters and secondary rivers in which mine water is spilled. However, this is not a phenomenon occurring along the entire course of the river, but only near the estuary of these water sources [14].
The results of the research carried out in residential buildings indicate that the 2-day average value of radon concentrations in the studied rooms was 30 Bq/m3. The lowest radon concentration was measured in single-family house basements in Ludzmierz near Nowy Targ, with a value of 12 Bq/m3, and the highest concentration reached 85.5 Bq/m3 in the basement of a one-storey house in Zakrzew. The most important factor influencing the radon concentration in apartments is their ventilation. The way apartments are ventilated depends on the external temperature and inhabitants' habits. Other factors influencing the radon concentration can also be the technical changes introduced in buildings, such as window replacements, building insulation or ventilation improvements.
In the measurements carried out, the average radon concentration on the ground floor was 31 Bq/m3, while on the first floor it was 29 Bq/m3.
Social aspects of radon testing
Let us remind you that radon (Rn-222) is a colourless and odourless, natural radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radioactive uranium-238, a mineral found in the earth's crust. Emissions in areas rich in uranium give rise to the presence of a certain level of radon in the facilities located in these areas, including residential buildings. Due to its natural presence, forced human contact with radiation is noted.
Table 2. Measurement start and end dates, locality, place of exposure and radon concentrations in the studied rooms
Measurement start Measurement end Locality Place of exposure T [°C] Crn [Bq/m3]
20.02.2017 22.02.2017 Ludzmierz near Nowy Targ basement in a single-family house 6 12
01.02.2017 03.02.2017 Jastrzçbie Zdroj room in the basement of the municipal headquarters of the State Fire Service 28 16
27.03.2017 29.03.2017 Pita basement in a block of flats 18 14.5
23.01.2017 25.01.2017 Nowy Sqcz ground floor in the municipal headquarters of the State Fire Service 19 31.3
21.01.2017 23.01.2017 Krakow basement in a block of flats 16 34.2
23.01.2017 25.01.2017 Sosnicowice basement in a single-family house 18 47.2
24.02.2017 24.02.2017 Zakrzew basement in a one-storey house 4.5 85.5
24.02.2017 24.02.2017 Zakrzew basement under stairs in a one-storey house 22 17.7
04.02.2017 06.02.2017 Szerzyny basement in a single-family house 10 17.6
31.01.2017 02.02.2017 Katowice basement in a block of flats 10 16.4
31.07.2017 02.08.2017 Kçdzierzyn-Kozle ground floor in a house 22 17.6
30.01.2017 01.02.2017 Leszno basement in a brick building 18 35.9
22.01.2017 24.01.2017 Sanok basement in a single-family house 12 11.3
21.01.2017 23.01.2017 Lwow ground floor in a single-family house 21 21.7
03.02.2017 05.02.2017 Opole high ground floor in a free-standing house 20 15.2
05.02.2017 07.02.2017 Kielanowka basement in a single-family house 15 14.7
27.01.2017 29.01.2017 Oswiçcim basement in a single-family house 10 39.6
30.01.2017 01.02.2017 Biatystok ground floor in a free-standing house 20 68.3
22.01.2017 24.01.2017 Stryszawa basement in a brick house 5 54.2
26.01.2017 28.01.2017 Wroctaw basement in a housing unit 11 24.2
Source: Own elaboration based on the research results.
Many people underestimate the seriousness and long-term health effects of radon exposure, and despite having the knowledge and awareness of its level in their homes, as well as preventive measures, they do not take action to minimise the risk of specific activities [15-17].
Important, from the point of view of the resilience of inhabitants of the areas exposed to radiation, is their own ability to monitor and minimise the risks associated with the level of radon. Resilience is understood as flexibility of a given community in the context of the internal adaptation capacity before, during and after certain events that interfere with its multidimensional functioning, connected with the sense of trust and security. However, in order for such activities to take place, it is necessary to inform people on these possibilities and to shape their attitudes, mainly in the cognitive sphere. This task rests with decision-makers whose role is to send the right message.
The social message, as an aid in undertaking appropriate preventive actions, is formulated in the following five steps:
- testing to determine to what extent radon is present,
- deciding whether the level is a threat,
- choosing the right recovery strategy,
- implementing the corrective strategy, and
- re-checking to ensure that the corrective action has been successfully completed [18].
It is important to create guidelines for this type of a message and investigate the social perception of such risks. Identifying the variables that affect risk perception, the standards recognized by a given group, and the level of trust in the sources of information about it come to the fore. Risk perception can be defined as "people's beliefs, attitudes, judgments and feelings, as well as the broader social and cultural values, and the disposition that people adopt regarding risks and their benefits" [19]. On the one hand, from the psychological point of view, this definition particularly
includes two components of attitude, i.e. cognitive and emotional, which together determine the third behavioural component. On the other hand, sociologically speaking, risk perception is strongly embedded in the social context, a joint definition and actions taken. Therefore, it is important for the successful testing of radon levels and the implementation of appropriate practices, a holistic approach to the community at risk of radiation, consisting in strengthening both individual and collective behaviours related to monitoring, reacting, learning and predicting possible events [20] with their consequences. All these variables are the germ of the methodology of studying social resilience in relation to the features of the social system.
Conclusions
The measurements carried out show that the average concentrations of radon in the studied rooms are relatively low, within the limits of 12-85.5 Bq/m3. However, it is worth taking into account the fact that, according to the World Health
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BRIG. ROBERT PIEC, PH.D. ENG. - graduated from the Faculty of Fire Safety Engineering at the Main School of Fire Service, with the title of M.Sc. Eng. He earned his Ph.D. degree in technical sciences, specialising in environmental engineering, conferred by way of the Resolution of the Scientific Council of the Central Institute for Labour Protection - National Research Institute. He also completed postgraduate studies in the field of Emergency Management at the Main School of Fire Service, postgraduate studies in the field of Databases at the Warsaw School of Information Technology, and postgraduate studies with Ph.D. seminars devoted to "Risk Analysis" at the Academy of Finance. He has authored or co-authored numerous articles, monograph chapters and papers presented at domestic and international conferences. Currently, he holds the position of Head of the Chair of Engineering Safety at the Main School of Fire Service.
SENIOR CAPT. BARBARA SZYKULA-PIEC, PH.D. - graduated from the University of Warsaw, the Philosophy and Sociology Department, the Institute of Sociology. In addition to pursuing her research interests, she is also active in working with addicts as a volunteer and instructor at the Stefan Batory Foundation in Warsaw. Since 2002 she has worked at the Main School of Fire Service. She has participated in a number of training sessions and courses on emergency intervention. In 2011, she completed postgraduate studies with Ph.D. seminars devoted to "Risk Analysis" at the Academy of Finance. In late 2014, she defended her doctoral dissertation in sociology at the University of Bialystok. The issues covered in her dissertation were related to the impact of socioeconomic factors on the sense of safety among the residents of districts. Subjects connected with stress, violence, discrimination and equality, in addition to studies of social resilience, culture of trust, behaviour, group relationships and social influence, are among her main fields of interest.
KRZYSZTOF ISAJENKO, M.SC. ENG. - Deputy Director of the Central Laboratory for Radiological Protection (CLOR) in Warsaw, Head of the CLOR Department of Dosimetry, and Head of the accredited Laboratory of Natural Radioactivity Measurements; in 1987, graduated from the Faculty of Technical Physics and Applied Mathematics at the Warsaw University of Technology (majoring as an M.Sc. Eng. in Fundamental Technological Research), a multi-annual member of the Commission for the Exploration of the Sea at the Polish Academy of Sciences, a lecturer at the Faculty of Physics at the Warsaw University of Technology, a participant in many training courses on radiation protection and nuclear safety (both domestic and foreign), and the author or co-author of numerous publications dealing with these topics.
IWONA StONECKA, M.SC. ENG.- a technical physicist by trade, specialising in medical physics. She is currently pursuing Ph.D. studies at the Warsaw University of Technology, the Faculty of Physics, in the field of nuclear physics, and she deals with Bayesian statistics in the context of mixed radiation and biological dosimetry. She works as a technical and research specialist at the Central Laboratory for Radiological Protection, mainly in biological dosimetry and thermoluminescent dosimetry, and she also conducts training in radiation protection and popular science lectures.
ANETA tUKASZEK-CHMIELEWSKA, PH.D. - graduated from the Faculty of Physics at the Warsaw University; Assistant Professor at the Institute of Physics and Chemistry, the Main School of the Fire Service in Warsaw. She conducts research in the field of flammability and smoke production of polymer materials, as well as the radioactivity of environmental components.
