2Chirchik State Pedagogical University Current Issues of Modern Philology and Linguodidactics
Staatliche Pädagogische Universität Chirchik Aktuelle Fragen der modernen Philologie und Linguodidaktik
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STAGES OF HISTORICAL-GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF GERMAN
AND UZBEK LEXICOGRAPHY
Gavhar Abdakhatovna Tilovova
PhD, Department of Languages, Tashkent State Agrarian University E-mail: gavhar.abdakhatovna@gmail. com
ABSTRACT
This article reflects on the importance of dictionaries as a result of the ancient formation of lexicography, the stages of historical development, and the development of the language. Also, the connection of ancient dictionaries with the classical Greek period, the emergence of dictionaries of the Hellenistic period, the emergence of bilingual dictionaries, and the development of monolingual dictionaries indicate that there have been changes in lexicography for centuries. The first examples of Uzbek and German lexicography are discussed in depth.
Keywords: lexicography, historical stages, monolingual dictionaries, Renaissance dictionaries, digital dictionaries.
ANNOTATSIYA
Ushbu maqolada leksikografiyaning qadimdan shakllanib kelishi, tarixiy rivojlanish bosqichlari va tilning taraqqiy etishi natijasida lug'atlarning ahamiyati haqida fikr yuritilgan. Shuningdek qadimgi lug'atlarning klassik yunon davri bilan bog'lanishi, ellinizm davri lug'atlari, ikki tilli lug'atlarning paydo bo'lishi, monolingual lug'atlarning rivojlanib borishi leksikografoyada asrlar davomida o'zgarishlar bo'lib turganidan darak beradi. O'zbek va nemis leksikografiyasining dastlabki namunalari to'g'risida chuqur mulohazalar yuritilgan.
Kalit so'zlar: leksikografiya, tarixiy bosqichlar, monolingual lug'atlar, Uyg'onish davri lug'atlari, raqamli lug'atlar.
Introduction. Humanity has had a high need for dictionaries and language records since ancient times. In ancient times, when communication and trade between civilizations were important, dictionaries played an important role in facilitating interactions and exchanges. They provided a means to overcome linguistic barriers, promote understanding and promote cultural exchange. In addition, in the fields of administration, law, and academia, dictionaries are essential for interpreting historical documents, legal texts, and scholarly works.
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The development of dictionaries in the processes of ancient civilizations is an early recognition of the need to systematically organize and clarify language, reflecting the constant human striving for understanding and effective communication. As societies progressed and languages became more diverse, the role of dictionaries became more apparent, reflecting the human need for accurate language records and interpretive tools.
From ancient lexical lists in Mesopotamia to dictionaries in ancient Egypt, these early dictionaries served as important references for those seeking to overcome language barriers, facilitate communication, and preserve cultural and historical knowledge.
Lexicography, the practice of compiling dictionaries and creating organized records of language, has a long and fascinating history that extends far back in time. The foundation of the history of first-world lexicography can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where early forms of dictionaries and glossaries were created to aid in the understanding and translation of languages [12]. In ancient Mesopotamia, Babylonian and Sumerian scholars compiled clay tablets known as "lexical lists," which contained words and their meanings. These lists functioned as early dictionaries, providing a reference for scribes and scholars to consult when translating texts or seeking clarification on unfamiliar terms [9]. In ancient Egypt, scribes inserted glosses into manuscript copies of works to explain obsolete and unusual words [15]. The foundation of modern lexicography, however, can be attributed to the Classical Greek period. During this time, scholars such as Aristotle and Plato engaged in the systematic study of language, leading to the development of lexicons and dictionaries [9].
The Classical Greek period and later periods witnessed the systematic study of language and the creation of lexicons and dictionaries by prominent scholars such as Aristotle and Plato. Their contributions exemplified the ongoing commitment to comprehensively document the language systematically, furthering the field of lexicography.
During the Hellenistic period, the renowned Greek scholar Aristophanes of Byzantium compiled the first known comprehensive Greek dictionary, known as the "Alexandrian Dictionary" (Attic glossary in some sources [17]). This pioneering work laid the groundwork for future lexicographers and marked a significant advancement in the field of lexicography [16]. Aristophanes of Byzantium made a great contribution to ancient philology. He prepared for publication many texts that constituted the golden fund of ancient Greek and world literature. Aristophanes prepared the works of Homer, Hesiod, and the comedic works of the comedian
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Aristophanes for publication. For the first time, he published the tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides, the works of Plato.
The Middle Ages: Emergence of Bilingual Dictionaries and Latin as a Lingua Franca. The Middle Ages marked a significant era in the development of lexicography. With the decline of the Roman Empire and the subsequent fragmentation of language and culture, the need for bilingual dictionaries became increasingly apparent. As trade and cultural exchange persisted, the necessity for tools to bridge linguistic barriers grew more pronounced. Bilingual dictionaries, particularly those facilitating translation between Latin and vernacular languages, played a crucial role in promoting communication and understanding across diverse linguistic communities.
During this period, Latin also emerged as a lingua franca, unifying scholarly and ecclesiastical communication across Western Europe. As a result, Latin dictionaries and glossaries became pivotal in facilitating education, religious discourse, and the dissemination of knowledge. The development of Latin lexicons contributed to the standardization and preservation of the language, establishing a foundation for future scholarly endeavors in lexicography.
The Renaissance: Development of Monolingual Dictionaries. The emergence of monolingual dictionaries during the Renaissance signaled the beginning of a period of change in lexicography. As humanistic scholars sought to revive classical education and promote vernacular literature, the demand for comprehensive linguistic resources increased. Monolingual dictionaries aimed at explaining the meaning and usage of words within a single language have become important tools for a deeper understanding of the national language and literature.
In the 16th century, notable figures such as Robert Estienne contributed greatly to the developing landscape of Renaissance lexicography. One of the best printers of his time, in 1531 he published Thesaurus linguae latinae, considered by some scholars to be the foundation of modern Latin lexicography. In addition, this dictionary made Estienne "the father of French lexicography". He published "Dictionarium latino-gallicum" in 1538 and "Dictionaire francoislatin" in 1540 [14]. These dictionaries were superior to others at the time because the non-classical elements were edited out; in identifying words, their correctness and use in context are checked, and quotations are taken only from classical authors. In addition, he applied consistency in word order, as lexicographers disagreed on whether words should be arranged alphabetically or etymologically. Estienne's thesaurus is in alphabetical order based on the first three letters of a word and then grouped etymologically [3]. In the 1540s he began to publish more concise school
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dictionaries.[38] Many of these dictionaries have been translated into other languages such as German and Flemish. Between 1528 and 1580, he published several editions of Alphabetum graecum, an expression of Renaissance Greek orthography [1]. His efforts to compile monolingual dictionaries not only enriched the understanding and use of the respective languages but also paved the way for the systematic study and documentation of the language throughout Europe.
The Modern Era: The Rise of Digital and Online Dictionaries. In modern times, the development of digital and online dictionaries has fundamentally changed the availability and functionality of lexicographic resources. The proliferation of electronic devices and the Internet has facilitated the creation of dynamic, searchable, and multimedia-rich dictionaries that meet diverse language needs. Digital dictionaries with features such as voice pronunciations and interactive interfaces have redefined the way people interact with and learn languages.
In addition, the advent of online platforms and collaborative lexicography has democratized the dictionary creation process, allowing for crowd-sourced contributions and real-time updates.
An early example of Uzbek lexicography. The foundation of the history of First World lexicography can also be attributed to the contributions of prominent figures of different cultures. One of the important figures in the history of lexicography is the Uzbek lexicographer Mahmud Koshgari. Koshgari is famous for his work "Divonu lug'at-it-turk" (Division of Turkish words), which is considered one of the oldest complete dictionaries of Turkic languages. His careful efforts to collect a wide range of Turkic words and phrases not only became an important source for understanding and preserving Turkic languages but also served the development of lexicology as a scientific discipline.
Mahmoud Kashgari's work shows the constant dedication to the comprehensive documentation of languages and the important role of lexicographers in establishing intercultural communication and preserving linguistic heritage. His contributions, along with those of other lexicographers from different cultures, reflect the human effort to understand and preserve language across civilizations. In conclusion, the foundation of the history of the first world lexicology can be attributed to the contributions of ancient civilizations and prominent figures such as Mahmud Koshgari.
Over the centuries, lexicography continued to evolve as a result of advances in linguistics, printing technology, and the growing need for comprehensive language records.
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The first German lexicographer. The development of German lexicography also goes through certain stages. The first lexicographer of the German language, according to sources, was Johann Christoph Adelung, who wrote the first and most important scientific dictionary of the German language for his time, the "Grammatisch-kritischen Wörterbuch der hochdeutschen Mundart". A pioneer in German lexicography, I. K. Adelung's comprehensive dictionary provides valuable information on the historical development, usage, and nuances of the German language, making it an invaluable resource for scholars, writers, and language enthusiasts.
The dictionary lists approximately 58,500 individual lemmas from the second half of the 18th-century German vocabulary in alphabetical order. In addition to grammatical and orthographic forms, the word's meaning and field of application, origin, and dialectal peculiarities are also covered.
Another version of the dictionary created and published by I.K.Adelung was republished in 1811 after his death with additions and corrections by Dietrich Wilhelm Soltau and Franz Xavier Schönberger. The dictionary consists of four volumes and 3890 pages. To date, the dictionary of I.K.Adelung, created in the 18th century, has been digitized and indexed in the Bavarian State Library between 1999 and 2001, funded by the German Research Foundation [18].
Sorting in lexicography. Each language has a lexicon and a grammar, that is, a set of simple expressions and rules, from which complex expressions are formed from simple expressions [6]. Some of these rules form complex words, while others work beyond word boundaries and thus form phrases and sentences. Familiar since the time of the Greek grammarians, these distinctions are not always clear due to the vague definition of "word" and the presence of complex expressions. In lexicography, the study and compilation of dictionaries take these complexities into account because lexicons are not static but evolve depending on factors such as historical development, social stratification, and quantitative content. To create a dictionary, lexicographers have to decide which lexical items to include based on the variability and richness of the language.
The main tasks of creating a dictionary. The process of creating a dictionary involves considering a wide range of uses and meanings associated with lexical items. Lexicographically, a lexical unit does not mean only one meaning, but a whole complex of uses that may be more or less related to each other. Lexicographic work includes not only the systematic compilation of dictionaries but also such complex tasks as tracing the historical development and social influence of the language. The evolution of languages creates the need to constantly revise and enrich the lexicon,
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which makes lexicography a constantly evolving field. Lexicographers are tasked with documenting the dynamic nature of language, capturing the shifts and changes in meaning that occur over time.
The nuances of lexical units. In the new era, that is, in the second half of the 20th century, lexicography began to organize itself as an educational discipline and professional practice [8]. These dictionaries and dictionaries marked a milestone in the history of lexicography, providing a systematic approach to the organization and understanding of language. These early forms of dictionaries served as the basis for the development of lexicography, which gradually became a systematic and scientific discipline over time [13].
The process of identifying and cataloging lexical units is not limited to the simple definition of words. Lexicographers study the complex web of different meanings, connotations, and contextual applications that comprise a single lexical unit. This comprehensive approach ensures that dictionaries not only provide definitions but also capture the richness and diversity of language use. In essence, lexicography is a deep study of the complexities of language, including its development, diversity, and its deep impact on human communication and expression.
Unraveling the dynamics of lexicographic evolution. The evolution of lexicography is not simply a linear progression, but a dynamic interplay of continuity and change. Lexicographers play a crucial role in documenting the developmental nature of language, capturing the semantic shifts and cultural adaptations that shape the lexicon. The complex task of identifying and tracing the origins of words leads to a deeper understanding of the internal connections between language, society, and human perception. By its very nature, the art and science of lexicography goes beyond the mere creation of a dictionary and reflects the human endeavor to understand, express, and preserve the linguistic heritage.
Lexicographers embark on a complex journey of research, analysis, and decision-making, examining a variety of sources, from historical texts and language archives to cultural artifacts and oral traditions, to collect a wide range of lexical units. This deep research allows lexicographers not only to discover the nuances and meanings of words but also to trace their origins and evolution over time.
The study of lexical units at the initial stages of word formation is a crucial aspect of lexicographic work, as it provides a comprehensive understanding of language dynamics and its cultural significance. By studying historical texts and linguistic archives, lexicographers uncover the complex layers of meaning and usage associated with lexical items, providing a comprehensive understanding of language
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evolution. The research of historical texts and linguistic archives serves as a basis for the study of the historical development and social impact of the language and serves to enrich the lexicon in lexicography.
In summary, the developmental stages of lexicography span ancient civilizations, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the modern era, each period reflecting the ongoing evolution of language documentation, translation, and understanding. These stages highlight humanity's continuing quest for systematic organization and understanding of language, and the rich history and importance of lexicography in diverse cultural and technological landscapes.
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