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УДК 811.11 - 112
Иркутский государственный университет путей сообщения
канд. филол. наук, доцент кафедры «Иностранные языки» Былина Е.Э.
Россия, г. Иркутск, +7-904-11-00-857 e-mail: stephanya1@yandex.ru
Irkutsk State Transport University The chair of foreign languages PhD, associate professor Bylina E.E.
Russia, Irkutsk, +7-904-11-00-857 e-mail: stephanya1@yandex.ru
Е.Э. Былина
ОБЕЩАНИЕ В РАЗЛИЧНЫХ РЕЧЕВЫХ СТРАТЕГИЯХ
Изучение механизмов влияния на людей представляется актуальным. Статья посвящена анализу влияния обещания на достижение стратегической цели. При проведении наших исследований мы опирались в основном на труды Ч. Бергера. Теоретическое положение, выдвинутое Ч. Бергером, опирается на фундаментальное предположение, что большая часть человеческого поведения якобы направлена на достижение цели. Стратегическая цель достигается в результате реализации эффективной стратегии, различные речевые тактики помогают достичь стратегической цели в рамках стратегии. Мы полагаем, что использование речевой тактики обещания в кооперативных речевых стратегиях способствует достижению стратегической цели, так как в рамках этих стратегий адресат дает свое согласие совершить что-то по своей воле, ввиду выгодности для него обещанного. Анализ примеров из художественной литературы на английском языке показал, что тактика обещания может быть использована в таких речевых стратегиях, как сбор информации о других (который направлен на выяснение необходимых фактов о других людях), утешение (направлено на ободрение получателя сообщения), убеждение (которое направлено на то, чтобы заставить получателя поверить во что-то или заставить его выполнить определенное действие), поддержание близких отношений (направлено на укрепление отношений и/или выражение своих чувств) и завоевание симпатии к себе (которая кроется в завоевании симпатии малознакомых людей через вежливость и доброту к ним). Использование тактики обещания в рамках этих стратегий делает взаимодействие эффективным и кооперативным.
Ключевые слова: речевая стратегия, речевая тактика, стратегическая цель, обещание.
Studying mechanisms of influence on people seems to be actual. The article is devoted to analyzing how using promising helps to achieve a desired goal. When conducting our research we based mainly on works by Ch. Berger. The theoretical position advanced by Ch. Berger rests on the fundamental assumption that much of human conduct is ostensibly goal-directed. A strategic goal is achieved in the result of implementation of an effective strategy, different speech tactics help to gain the strategic aim within the strategy. We think that using speech tactics of promising helps to gain a strategic goal within collaborative speech strategies, because a receiver gives his / her compliance to do something of his / her own free will, as it is favorable for him / her. The analysis of the examples taken from English fiction reveals that the tactics of promising can be used in such collaborative strategies as the communication strategy of acquiring information about others (it is aimed at finding out necessary facts about other people), comforting others (its aim is to encourage a recipient), persuasive strategy (it is aimed at making a recipient believe in something or making him / her fulfill a definite action), the strategy of maintaining the friendship or love (it is aimed at strengthening relations and / or expressing one's feelings), inducing others to like them (it lies in gaining the sympathy of almost unknown people). The use of the tactics of promising makes interaction being effective and collaborative.
Key words: communication/ speech strategy, speech tactics, strategic goal, promising.
© Былина Е.Э., 2018
E.E. Bylina
PROMISING IN DIFFERENT SPEECH STRATEGIES
Introduction
Communication processes are fundamental to the induction of attitude and behavioral change in people: any communicative act, verbal or nonverbal, which is apprehended by another person, will alter individual's perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and motivations, even if ever so slightly. Therefore studying mechanisms of influence on people seems to be actual. Our article is devoted to analyzing how using promising helps to achieve a desired effect. When conducting our research we based mainly on works of Ch. Berger [1; 2; 3; 4; 5].
Compliance gaining and persuasion
Influence on people in the process of communication is studied by at least two theories: compliance gaining and persuasion. S.R. Wilson [6; p. 1-2] shows differences between them.
Although both compliance gaining and persuasion involve intentional attempts to influence others, they differ in several respects [7]. Persuasion scholars typically focus on public or mass communication contexts, whereas compliance-gaining scholars investigate how friends, family members and co-workers influence one another.
Persuasion scholars study message processing or effects, whereas compliance-gaining research also focuses on message production or choices. Compliance-gaining research explores the conditions under which individuals are most likely to comply with requests [8; 9].
Compliance gaining also offers a glimpse into how relationships are created and sustained. Close relationships are those in which the parties influence one another's thoughts, feelings, and actions frequently and consequentially on a range of topics over time [10; 11; 12]. Relational power and intimacy shape how participants seek and resist one another's compliance, and reciprocally, such attempts often confirm yet can challenge or renegotiate existing levels of power and intimacy [13; 14]. Compliance gaining also offers insight into cultural and individual differences.
Theoretical aspects of achieving goals
The theoretical position advanced by Ch. Berger [3] rests on the fundamental assumption that much of human conduct is ostensibly goal-directed. Effective social plans are those that enable people to reach primary goals while satisfying the metagoals of efficiency and social appropriateness. Effective planning is a cognitive process that produces effective plans. Although these definitions are relatively straightforward, they belie the fact that in practice, assessing the effectiveness of both plans and planning is quite difficult. The effectiveness of any action plan aimed at achieving a social goal is the joint product of the plan, and the skills and attributes of the social actor who carries out the plan. Communication researchers [15; 16] have studied the strategies individuals say they employ to gain compliance from others and the conditions under which these compliance-gaining strategies are used. We think that using speech tactics of promising helps to gain a strategic goal.
From the definition of the verb to promise [17] we can conclude that if a receiver succeeded in making his / her partner believe that something favorable would be done for him / her in the future, the speech tactics of promising can be considered as effective.
The results achieved by A.H. Kurji confirm our previous conclusions. The author states that in order for a promise to go through, to have uptake, there must be a belief by the promise that the promisor is able to perform the promised act. The promisee must not be against the performance of the promised act. One of the unique facets of promissory obligation is the ability to waive the obligation by the promise. The promised act must always be wanted by the promise [18; p. 8-10]. It shows that a promise should be beneficial to the promisee's interests.
Promising helps to achieve aims within collaborative speech strategies, i.e. a receiver gives his / her compliance to do something of his / her own free will, because it is favorable for him / her. A strategic goal is achieved in the result of implementation of an effective strategy, different speech tactics help to gain the strategic aim within the strategy.
Social goals and communication strategies
According to some authors [19; 20], social actors and actresses, in their interactions with others, seek to achieve such goals as controlling their conversations, comforting others, gaining compliance from others, and inducing others to like them. We analyzed different discourse fragments containing promising and found that the tactics of promising can be used in the following strategies of cooperative interaction: acquiring information about others, comforting others, persuasion, maintaining the friendship or love, inducing others to like them.
Ch. Berger and K. Kellermann [4] in their works paid most attention to studying the strategy of acquiring information about others. In these and other endeavors, persons employ their knowledge of themselves and others, their knowledge about social interaction processes and their communication skills to achieve their goals. Faulty knowledge or lack of skill may prevent interactants from achieving their social goals, but these deficits are not immutable. Persons are capable of acquiring information necessary for generating new knowledge, correcting faulty knowledge, and remediating skill deficits. Nevertheless, knowledge may be power, but in the domain of strategic communication, praxis assumes an equally important role in the production of optimal performance.
Ch. Berger takes it as a given that most interaction situations involve the simultaneous pursuit of a number of interaction goals [1]. In the later work Ch. Berger and K. Kellermann [4] say that the pursuit of multiple goals can constrain the choice and implementation of interaction strategies. The goal of acquiring information about others is frequently pursued along with other social goals and in many cases may be a precondition for the attainment of other goals as the procurement of information about others is crucial in retrieving or developing plans to reach social goals.
It is also important to recognize that as persons engage in strategic interactions their goals may change [1]. Further Ch. Berger & K. Kellermann [4] state that goal metamorphosis is especially important in the social information-gathering context. They suspect that social information acquisition is undertaken generally to achieve such social goals as ingratia-tion, compliance-gaining, and the like. Once sufficient information is gathered, the social information acquisition goal transmutes to one of these more primary goals.
Of course, the goal of acquiring social information might reemerge later in an ongoing interaction if a primary goal is not being reached [21; 1; 22]. Thus, the acquisition of social and personal information is an important goal in almost every strategic communication episode.
Method
But if one wants to understand how strategies function in interpersonal settings or, for that matter, he / she must observe actual message exchanges [23; p. 474]. According to Ch. Berger and K. Kellermann the understandings that persons have of their social interactions are determined by their interpretations of: (a) the context within which the interaction occurs, (b) the actions of their interaction partners, and (c) their own actions [4].
Analysis of speech tactics of promising in different strategies
The strategy of acquiring information about others is aimed at finding out necessary facts about other people as it can be seen in the following passage:
[1] John Harley was having lunch at the hospital cafeteria when Keith Webster joined him. Keith said, 'John, I promise to keep it confidential, but I'd feel a lot better if you told me the truth about what happened to Eve Blackwell'. Harley hesitated, then shrugged. 'All right. It was her brother-in-law, George Mellis' [24; p. 431].
Keith needed to get interested information about the woman he liked that might help him get closer to her. In order to do it he met his friend and asked. He promised to keep secret what he learned from him and it helped John to agree to fulfill Keith's request.
The aim of the strategy of comforting others is to encourage a recipient. It can be seen in the example below:
[2] Early the following morning Dana took Kemal to a prominent orthopedic surgeon, Dr. William Wilcox. After the examination, Dr. Wilcox talked to Dana alone.
'Miss Evans, to fit him with a prosthesis would cost twenty thousand dollars and there's a problem here. Kemal is only twelve years old. His body will keep growing until he's seventeen or eighteen. He could outgrow the prosthesis every few months. I'm afraid financially it's not practical'.
Dana had a sinking feeling. 'I see. Thank you, Doctor'.
Outside, Dana said to Kemal, 'Don't worry, darling. We'll find a way [25].
Dana used promising in order to make her adopted son believe that they would find the way out of the difficult situation; she said so because she wanted to comfort him. The tactics of promising carried out the main role here as it helped the recipient believe in solving the problem.
The goal of persuasive strategy is aimed at making a recipient believe in something; making him / her fulfill a definite action.
The aim of making a recipient believe that something would be done is realized in the following fragment:
[3] [a] 'You heard what I said, sir. You two keep out of it'. There was a long pause, then Horrocks came back. 'We'll have him in a few minutes,' he said grimly. 'He'll be sorry he started this'. He turned to Don. 'You've done more than your share in this, Mr Micklem. I'll be glad now if you'll go home'.
Don stared at him.
'You're not serious, are you? Hang it, if it hadn't been for Harry and me...'
'I know that, sir,' Horrocks said curtly, 'but there may be more shooting, and I'm not carrying the can if you happen to stop a bullet. I'll let you know how it works out, but right now, you're going home'.
Don saw the sense in this, and although he was reluctant to leave, he lifted his shoulders in a resigned shrug.
'Okay, Inspector; good luck and don't let him get away'.
'He won't get away,' Horrocks said. 'I let you know how it works out'.
'Come on, Harry, let's get out of here' [26].
Mr Micklem and his servant were helping the police to catch their friend's killer. Inspector Horrocks being afraid of their lives wanted to send the men home, he assured them that the policemen would catch the killer already in some minutes, but the men resisted and wanted to continue the chase. That is why the inspector warned them about possible shooting which could be dangerous for them, after that he promised to inform them about the success of the case (I'll let you know how it works out), all that helped to persuade Mr Micklem and his servant that the killer would be caught and punished by policemen and without their help.
In the next passage the speaker aims at inclining the receiver to a definite action:
[b] 'Dutchmen are no good', said the bossboy...
<...>
'You know that my wife is ill, and that I'm having a lot of trouble just now. I don't want the Dutchmen to go, just now when the work is so heavy. I'll speak to him, and if there is any more trouble with the men, then come to me and I'll deal with it myself'.
<...>
'After all these years, when we have been working together for so long, surely you can do this for me. It won't be for very long'.
He watched the man's face soften in response to his own... [27; p. 51].
The bossboy wanted the farm's owner to dismiss the Dutchmen since they worked poorly. The host in his turn asked the bossboy to leave everything as it was and in order to persuade him, he complained about his own difficulties and resorted to promising, then to assuring; all that leaded to the desired effect of the conversation - the host managed to persuade the bossboy to refuse his idea of the Dutchmen's dismissal.
The strategy of maintaining the friendship or love is aimed at strengthening relations and / or expressing one's feelings.
[4] 'Darling, I want to marry you. Will you marry me?'
And without even thinking, Graciela said, 'Yes. Oh, yes'.
And she was in his arms again, and she thought: This is what I wanted and thought I would never have.
Ricardo was saying, ' We'll live in France for a while, where we'll be safe. This fight will be over soon, and we'll return to Spain'
She knew that she would go anywhere with this man, and that if there was danger, she wanted to share it with him [28].
Ricardo asked Graciela if she would marry him and the woman agreed. After that he promised her that they would live in safety since he wanted to assure her in the rightness of her decision.
The aim of the strategy of inducing others to like them lies in gaining the sympathy of almost unknown people through being polite and kind with them.
[5] Before Dana could respond, there was a loud crash from the adjoining library.
Pamela Hudson rose and hurried toward the sound. Roger and Dana followed. They
stopped at the door. In the library, a blue Ming vase had fallen to the floor and shattered. Kemal stood next to it.
'Oh, my God,' Dana said, horrified. 'I'm so sorry. Kemal, how could you—?'
'It was an accident'.
Dana turned to the Hudsons, her face flushed with embarrassment. 'I'm terribly sorry. I'll pay for it, of course. I—'
'Please don't worry about it,' Pamela Hudson said with a nice smile. 'Our dogs do much worse' [25].
Dana apologized for the vase broken by her son, trying to compensate the lose she promised to pay its cost. As it can be seen in the fragment above, the speaker in her efforts to induce the new acquaintances to like her follows the rules of politeness through the use of the tactics of promising.
Conclusion
Our analysis shows that an actor trying to gain his / her communicative goal often uses the tactics of promising. He / she guarantees to do something favorable for a receiver or assures him / her that something favorable will definitely happen in future as a result a receiver gives his / her compliance to do something and of his / her own free will. That makes interaction being effective and collaborative.
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