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DOI 10.52575/2712-7451-2023-42-2-330-338
Models of Word-Formation in Loan Toponyms in German and French
Inna A. Koteneva, Nelja L. Krivchikova, Yuliya N. Melnikova, Tamara M. Timoshilova
Belgorod National Research University 85 Pobeda St, Belgorod 308015, Russia E-mail: koteneva@bsu.edu.ru, krivchikova@bsu.edu.ru, melnikova@bsu.edu.ru, timoshilova@bsu.edu.ru
Abstract. The peculiarities of German and French toponymic systems are the result of historical and extralinguistic development. The system of word forming patterns and its structural components are represented as a result of the interaction of languages. It allows to analyse German and French toponyms as subsystems of onymic vocabulary. Loan formants, which determined social-cultural nature of toponyms, are considered. Special attention is paid to the process of onymization of appellatives. Structural modeling of German and French toponyms is presented. A toponym, as a unit of language, identifies geographical objects, it is a part of the speech reflection of human activity in the language and preserves linguistic components in its morphological structure related to the languages of people who lived in this territory in the past, to historical events that influenced the formation of German and French toponymicon. Morphological formants reveal a close relationship between German and French toponymicon. They allow us to speak about the historical origin of the toponym especially about the language influenced the origin of onyms.
Key words: onomastics; toponymy; toponym; word formant; loan words
For citation: Koteneva I.A., Krivchikova N.L., Melnikova Yu.N., Timoshilova T.M. 2023. Models of Word-Formation in Loan Toponyms in German and French. Issues in Journalism, Education, Linguistics, 42(2): 330-338 (in Russian). DOI: 10.52575/2712-7451-2023-42-2-330-338
Словообразовательные форманты в топонимических системах немецкого и французского языков
Котенева И.А., Кривчикова Н.Л., Мельникова Ю.Н., Тимошилова Т.М.
Белгородский государственный национальный исследовательский университет, Россия, 308015, Белгород, ул. Победы, 85 E-mail: koteneva@bsu.edu.ru, krivchikova@bsu.edu.ru, melnikova@bsu.edu.ru, timoshilova@bsu.edu.ru
Аннотация. Характерные черты немецкой и французской топонимических систем являются результатом исторического и экстралингвистического развития. Система словообразовательных формантов этих языков и их структурные компоненты, представлены как результат языкового взаимодействия. Это позволяет анализировать немецкие и французские топонимы как подсистемы онимической лексики. Авторы рассматривают форманты, определившие социокультурную природу топонимов. Особое внимание уделяется процессу онимизации апеллятивов. Представленое структурное моделирование немецких и французских топонимов показывает, что топоним, как единица языка, идентифицирует географические объекты, он является частью речевого отражения человеческой деятельности в языке и сохраняет в своей морфологической структуре лингвистические компоненты, связанные с языками людей, которые жили на этой территории в прошлом, с историческими событиями, повлиявшими на формирование немецкого и французского топонимикона. Выявленные морфологические форманты обнаруживают тесную связь между немецкой и французской топонимикой. Кроме того, они позволяют говорить об историческом происхождении топонима, особенно о языке, повлиявшем на происхождение онимов.
Ключевые слова: ономастика, топонимика, топоним, словообразовательный формант, заимствованные слова
Для цитирования: Koteneva I.A., Krivchikova N.L., Melnikova Yu.N., Timoshilova T.M. 2023. Models of Word-Formation in Loan Toponyms in German and French. Issues in Journalism, Education, Linguistics, 42(2): 330-338 (in Russian). DOI: 10.52575/2712-7451-2023-42-2-330-338
Introduction
Determination of the patterns of formation and functioning of proper names is the area of onomastic researches in linguistics.
The formation of the theoretical basis of onomastics was developed in the works of the well-known Russian linguists O.S. Akhmanova, V.D. Belenkaya, R.A. Budagov, E.M. Murzaev, V.A. Nikonov, E.M. Pospelov, A.V. Superanskaya, A.A. Reformatsky and others. This linguistic area includes studies of the synchronic and diachronic plans, among which "global, areal and regional onomastic studies are possible" [Shmidt, 1998, p. 11]. The global onomastic researches determine the typological features of the proper names of different countries and peoples and establish onomastic universals filling up the fund of universals of general linguistics [Garagulya, 2019].
The theoretical and practical results of the researches of proper names are very important for the development of many sciences such as archeology, history, geography. Moreover, onomastics uses scientific information showing the territorial, cultural and historical basis of linguistic facts having an onomastic nature. This scientific field appears at the "juncture" of sciences and "has a special complexity of the subject of the research" (ibid).
Proper names are rather varied in the language. They are an object of onomastic researches and determine the main characteristics of onomastics: interdisciplinarity and singling out independent branches. Anthroponymics and toponymy are the largest among them.
Onyms (names, surnames, pseudonyms, etc.), naming each person or peoples, are a field of anthroponymic researches. The subject of toponymy is geographical names. "Along with the main, orienting function, toponyms are closely connected with the culture in the society. As in a mirror, they reflect the assessment of a certain event, phenomenon, attitude towards it in different strata of society in different historical periods" [Belyaev, 2016, p. 683].
People began to name their places of residence from the very beginning of their settling. "There is a certain hierarchy regarding the time of origin of certain types of toponyms. The names of physical and geographical objects (rivers, mountains, valleys, etc.) are older than oiconyms (names of settlements). Hydronyms are the most ancient type of all toponyms, and the names of major rivers are very old and originate in the Indo-European period" [Voronina 2019: 80].
Thus, the names of major rivers in Europe go back to common roots, as, for example, the original form * Albantia is represented in the modern hydronyms Lafnitz (Styria), Alfenz (Vorarlberg), Aubance (France), Ulvunda (Norway). The names of small rivers, stream tributaries, brooks appear in the national period (in the Gallo-Roman period for France, in the Old High German period for Germany). "Similarly, the names of large peaks are older than the names of low mountains, highlands, hills. However, in the group of oiconyms, the opposite tendency is observed: the names of small settlements retain their names through the centuries and give their names to a larger settlement, a city that arise on their basis" (ibid).
The process of toponymization takes its beginning from the names of nouns and descriptive constructions. They become more stable in the process of time. It shows that these language tools pass into the category of proper names (onimization of appellatives), that is, toponyms.
A. N. Belyaev underlines the origin of proper names from common names in the historical aspect and outlines the main stages of their development: common name ^ speech proper name ^ proper name as a singular term [Belyaev, 2018, p. 683]. In this way toponyms become the part of the vocabulary of the language, obeying the laws of it.
Large-scale researches in the field of toponymy began in second half of the 19th century in Europe. Their purpose was to create modern dictionaries of toponyms.
Auguste Longnon (1844-1911) is considered to be the creator of the scientific French toponymy. He wrote the book "Geographical Names of France" which was published in 1920. The results of these studies were included in the course of his lectures at the École pratique des Hautes Études in Paris. The results of his researches began to appear in the scientific literature since 1929 [Longnon, 1968; 1999].
The sources of the national toponymicon have the original forms of geographical names, which were fixed on the maps for centuries. It led to etymological studies of toponyms. The result of these etymological researches was that an Indo-European or pre-Celtic substrates were revealed in the European toponymicon [Rostaing, 1948; Dauzat, 1960; Nègre, 1990; Claval, 2003; Dela-marre, 2019].
In Germany, Jacob Grimm (1785-1863), the creator of comparative historical linguistics, studied proper names [Hennig, 2001, p. 15]. He studied onyms in the early stages of the language development. Ernst Verstemann followed J. Grimm's scientific principles and developed them in his work "Old German Onomasticon" (a two-volume edition) and the monograph "German Toponyms". The etymological analysis of the geographical names of Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and Switzerland is presented in them.
A growing interest in toponymic researches refers to the beginning of the 20th century. The "Journal of onomastic researches" under the editorship of I. Schnetz, professor at the University of Munich, was published in 1925. Later, the University of Leipzig and the Schiller University in Jena became the centers of onomastic researches. Numerous articles published in such linguistic journals as Sprachpflege, Zeitschrift für Germanistik, Zeitschrift für Slawistik, Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaftliche Kommunikationsforschung were the result of the creative work of the onomastic sections.
Nowadays, Albert Dose (1877-1955), Charles Rosten (1904-1999) and Ernest Negre (19072000) are considered to be experts in the field of French toponymy. The researches of Adolf Bach, Hans Krae, Ernst Eichler and many others are devoted to toponymic issues in German philology. The Russian scientists of the onomastic school of the Bashkir University made a great contribution to the study of the German toponymicon. Researches on toponyms of the German language are carried out in the works of R.Z. Muryasov, A.N. Belyaev and many others.
Objects and methods of analysis
The method of reconstruction and etymological method allow to reconstruct forms of topo-nyms, their original meanings which can't be found in written sources. Method of structural analysis and method of system-dynamic research give an opportunity to explain phonetic and mor-phonological changes of toponyms and trace the evolution of German and French geographical names.
Results and discussion
The linguistic field of geographic names is a system of interrelated elements. The block of toponyms in any territory constitutes its toponymy, or toponymicon. On the one hand, the topo-nymic material is very diverse, the toponomic space (the term was introduced by V.N. Toporov in 1962) is immense. On the other hand, toponyms represent a peculiar subsystem of the vocabulary of the corresponding language and are strictly systemic in nature. Thus, the toponym as a proper name is a reflection of the linguistic consciousness of the native speakers inhabiting the given territory. Proper names formed from appellatives tend to semantic and structural simplification. Therefore, it is impossible to determine the initial meaning of a toponym from the point of view of synchrony.
At the same time, the historical aspect of the study of the structural-semantic modeling of toponyms is also of considerable interest. Its aim is to trace the formation of a geographical name from the corresponding appellative with its specific structure and meaning of its components.
Loan words, as one of the sources of language enrichment, are of particular interest for the study of derivational formants, which form the basis of the toponymicon of any language.
Loan translation of foreign language toponyms is a phenomenon that most vividly reflects the relationship of loan words and word formation. In this case the semantic structure is the center of study. The components of loan compounds are a translation of the components of a complex word into another language: L. Aquae Aureliae> Baden-Baden; Lobuduna ("Lopos fortress")> Ladenburg; ea quae Slavica lingua Starigard, hoc est antiqua civitas, dicitur "Oldenburg"> Oldenburg, Aldenburg; Bjelawoda> Weifiwasser; Ztarecoztol ("old church")> Altkirchen; Zschorne-gosta ("black coniferous forest")> Schwarzheide; Buckowien> Buchhain.
Most of the loan toponyms are derivative toponyms, which later, in most cases, are assimilated into German and French, acquiring the form of a simplex.
Morphological formants show the historical nature of the nomination in the nominative system of toponyms. They allow to find the language that influenced the origin of the onym.
The Celts seized the territories of Western, Central and partly Southern Europe in the 7th-6th centuries BC. After the invasion of Europe by the Romans, and then by the Germanic tribes, they migrated to the British Isles and partially assimilated with the tribes of the conquerors, but many Celtic place names were preserved by the conquerors.
The names of many Celtic tribes can be found in the oiconyms: Gaul - Gauls, Belgium -Belgae, Helvetia (Switzerland) - Helvetians, Britain, Great Britain, Brittany - Britons, Bohemia (cf. Latin Bojohaemum) - Boyi, Bavaria - Bavars, Vindelicia - Vindelici (now there is no name for the area south of the Danube with the center in the area of Augsburg, which the Romans called Augusta Vindelicorum), Trier (Treverorum) - Trevers, Norik (Noricum) - noriki, Raetia (province of Retien in the region of Augsburg and Regensburg) - Raeti, Scotland - Scottish, Ireland - Ira. The Germans occupied territories in the west and south which belonged to the Celtic tribes. After the invasion of the Germanic tribes in these areas, the Celtic language did not disappear. Its elements were assimilated into the languages of the conquerors. During the Middle Ages, the Celtic language was preserved in the form of Gallo-Roman in the territory of Gaul, and today it is the part of the Romansh language of Switzerland.
Interpretation of oiconyms of Celtic origin is rather difficult because knowledge of the ancient Celtic language is small and all known Celtic names have come down only in Latinized form, in Roman written monuments. Some names of a mixed type show it, for example, Bernkastel < Prin-castellum from the Celtic hydronym Prin + Latin castellum "fortification, fortress".
The modern French toponym Nanterre has pre-Celtic elements which formed the original name of the area: duron ~ durum ("door", "forum", "market", "city") + nemeton, Latinized in nemetum ("temple", "sacred place ") (Nemetodurum). The Celtic formants often had the names of Gods: the city of Lyon is formed from two roots: Lugdunum, that is, Lugus (Lug) - the highest God in the Celtic mythology and dunum - "hill", "fortification". In addition, the toponyms Nan-terre and Lyon demonstrate that the process of the formation of modern terms closed to morphological simplification. Their formation is the result of apocopes, which significantly changed their form during the action of phonetic laws.
In the German toponymicon, the following geographical names are formed from the Celtic formant dunum: Eburum (Iferten) "fortress of Eburos" <Eburodunum from the Celtic anthropo-nym Eburos; Thun, Dhaun - "the fortress of Viros" <Dunum <* Virodunum; Birten - "fortress of Viros" <Bertuna <* Virodunum; Ladenburg - "the fortress of Lopos" or "wolf fortress" < Loboden-burg <Lupodunum from the Celtic anthroponym Lupos, Lopos or from the Latin lupus - "wolf11; Zarten and Kirch-Zarten - "fortress of Taros" <765 Zatduna <Tarodunum from the anthroponym Taros/Tarus/Tara; Rigodunum - "royal fortress"; Kempten - "strength on the bend" < Kambodu-num from cambos "curve".
As for the changes in the form of oiconyms in the process of their assimilation, the Celtic names underwent the same changes that were observed with the spread of the Latin language.
The Romans expanded the territories of their empire on both banks of the Rhine and Danube (in order to protect their borders from "barbarians"). After that the process of Romanization of the Celts and Germans, who inhabited the territories west of the Rhine and north of the Danube, began. The spread of Latin names in the German area, including the present German territory, was uneven. A great number of oiconyms of Latin origin appeared in the region of the Moselle River, fewer in the upper and middle reaches of the Rhine, in the Alps.
As for the word formation of Latin oiconyms, it is necessary to underline that the survived forms are mostly conscious systemic formations. They did not appear by chance. They are mostly official in nature and have a typed grammatical structure. The most common group of oiconyms is phrases, for example: Aurelia Aquensis (Baden-Baden), Augusta Rauracorum (Basel-August), Castellum Mattiacorum (Mainz-Kastel), Aquae Mattiace (Wiesbaden), Colonia Claudia Augusta Agrippinensis (Köln).
The derivational analysis of toponyms shows etymological differences between formants having the same form in the modern French toponymicon. For example, the -metz element is quite common in the word-formation structure of many toponyms in the territory from the north of France to the Paris region: Gometz, Jametz, Limetz. The names of these cities go back to the era of the Celts and Romans. The same formant is in the name of the city (Metz), located in the northeastern part of France in the Lorraine region. This city is the capital of this historical region. However, as for the city of Metz, its origin goes back to the city of Divodurum, which existed in the Celtic era, and got its name from the Latin roots - -divinus ("sacred") + -duro ("square, market"). This original toponym belonged to the main city of the Gallic tribe, which had the name of Medi-omatrici. The Romans after its conquest gave it the name based on the name of the tribe. The similar phenomenon was characteristic of the conquered Gaul of that time, when ethnonyms, elements indicating the tribes-founders of settlements, became formative elements of new toponyms (Paris, Amiens, Reims). The modern name Metz comes directly from the Latin ethnonym Medi-omatricis, which had numerous morphological transformations in different eras. The main changes in French are the following: L. Mediomatricis ^ F. Mediomatrice ^ Mettis ^ Metis ^ Mes ^ Metz.
The -metz formant, as a derivational element, in the structure of other toponyms is an additional part of the semantics and has a different origin. Its etymology goes back to the Gallo-Roman root -masu, which has a Latin origin from mansus ("urban settlement", "populated area"). It had the form -mais - "maison" ("small house") in French. It explains the existence of the formant -metz in numerous toponymic names of this region.
The Latin elements, which were widespread among the derivational formants of the French and German toponymicons, reflect the specificity of toponymic nominations in different geographical areas of France and Germany. The Latin suffix -anum is among them. The French researchers (A. Dauzat, A. Longnon) remarked that this suffix was the source of most geographical names formed in the Gallo-Roman region.
Initially, the suffix -anum denoted the ownership of the estate to the master in Latin: Albi-anum, Albiniana> Alphen ((from: anthroponym Albinius); Ticinum. The -anum suffix is the formant which influenced the formation of geographical names ending in -an in the modern French: Balan, Chambaran, Frotignan, Perpignan. These place names are formed from the probable founder of the possession of Roman origin, for example Frontinius for Frontignan or Cornelius for Corneilla (Corneilla-del-Vercol). In other words, place names of this type come from Roman anthroponyms by adding the suffix -anum.
The typical Gallo-Roman suffix -acum is opposed to -anum. It is a formant of Gaulish origin. Sometimes it had the form -acu, proving that in Late Latin the final -m at the end of the words was dropped. The French researcher Charles Rosten notes that this formant is widely spread and fixed in the morphological structure of toponyms throughout France, with the exception of the more romanized department of the Alpes-Maritimes and in Corsica [Reitzenstein, 2006].
However, this formant had many changes in the French toponymy, depending on the area of distribution. The most numerous group contains toponyms in -ac: in the Breton regions, which
later became French - Quédillac, Assérac, Merdrignac, Québriac, Brignac, Mordéac; in the southwest of the country - Armagnac, Balzac, Bussac, Cognac, Londéac, Pérignac, Rouffiac; as well as in the Occitan regions - Vitrac, Floirac, Fleurac, Gingac, Savignac.
In the Central-East region, the -acum suffix transformed into -as: Julienas, Lacenas, Odenas or -at: Viriat, Jayat or even -a: Charchilla, Gizia, Messia. In the Germanized regions (in the north, northeastern part of Alsace), it was transformed into the German suffix -ach: Durmenach (L. Terminacum>Terminachum), Rouffach (L. Rubeacum), Brisach (L. Brisacum), Altenach (L. Altenacum) or less commonly in the -ig formant: Epfig.
In the French regions oïl (Northern France), the -acum suffix typologically remains in the -ay formants: Savenay, Villacoublay, Viroflay, Cernay; or -é: Vitré, Gacé; or even -ey: Fleurey, Brecey, Grosley.
The next large group in the German toponymicon contains Celtic or Latin derivatives with the suffix -acum, formed according to the Celtic model, loaned into German directly from Celtic or through Latin, since the Celtic territories were captured initially by the Romans, then by the Germans. These toponyms express the belonging of a place (originally an estate) to a certain owner, therefore, in most cases, they are also based on the Celtic or Latin anthroponyms: An-tunnus> Antunnacum> Andernach; Epotoros> Epternacum> Echternach; Contio, Contius, Con-tionus> Contionacum> Conz; Julius> Juliacum. Derivatives with the -acum suffix are usually two-part. The Latin-Celtic nouns fundus ("Grundstück", "land plot") or villa (("Landgut", "estate") are omitted in German when they are loaned: Fundus Noniacus> Noniacum [Bach, 1953, p. 220].
In German, the -acum suffix appears in the form:
- -ach: Monte Brisiaco (= auf dem Berg Brisiacus) (4c.) (compare: Celt. anthrop. Brisios)> ad Prisacam, Brisaga (10c.)> Brizach (1012/18)> Brisach (1237 / 54)> Brysach (1416)> Breysach (1507)> Breisach; Cruciniacum (819)> in villa Cruzenacus (822)> Crucenache (1225)> Creutz-naeh (1517)> Kreuznach (Celt. anthrop. Crucinus); Epternacum> Echternach (from Celt. anthrop. * Epotoros); Luriacum> Lörrach; Hilciaco palatio regis (835)> Ilzicha (1040)> Iltzach (14c.)> Illzach; Imbriaca (1052)> Embrach; Brittanus> * Brittanacum> Brettnach; Montanus> Monterna-ckum (1098)> Montenach; Rubius> Rubiacum (763)> Rufach; Cossinius> Cussenacho (9c.)> Küßnacht; Viktrius> Wichtracho (1180)> Wichtrach; Abudiacum> Epfach;
- -ich: Sentius > Sentiacum palatium (762) > Sinciacus (828) > Senzicha (1191) > Syntzich (1420) > Sinzig; *Vitelliacum in marca Villiacensi (1065) > Witeliche (1114) > Wittlich (1171) > Wittlich; Tolbiäcum > in Tulbiaco (7-8 centuries) > Zulbiche (975) > Zulpicha (11c.) > Czulpeche (1200) > Zülpich; Tiberiacum > Zieverich; *Victoriacum > Wihetracha (866) > Wichterich; *Mar-tiniacum > Metternich; Firminius > *Firminiacum > Firmenich;
- -ch, -sch: Laureacus (1139) > Lorke (1189) > Lorch (Celt. anthrop. Laurus or Laurius); Cressiacum (634) > Kersch; Carisius > Carisiaco (791) > Kirsch; *Appiacum > Hepfeka (762) > Epfig;
- (e)nz, (i)nz, tz: sometimes the -acum suffix is apocoped, and nt combinations of the root morpheme undergo a second (High German) interruption: nt > nz, tt > tz: *[H]erculentiacum (966) > Erkelence (1224) > Erkelenz; Mogontiacum (6c.) > Magância, Mogontia, Moguntia (7c.) > Mâginza (9-10 centuries) > Megenze (13c.) > ze Maentze (1322) > die stat zu Meintz (1362) > Mentz (1346) > Mencze (1494) > Mainz; Sanciacum (1155) > Sencicho (1147) > Sinz; Con-tionacum > Conz; *Divitiacum > Divitia > Deutz; *Curiacum > Kork .
Conclusion
As it is clear from the material, German and French toponyms formed on the basis of borrowings show significant diversity. The study of the word-formation structure and the main models of toponominations allowed to systematize the factors and find the processes that helped to consolidate extralinguistical and historical knowledge in the studied languages and to identify elements that show how foreign language elements and frequency formants created on the basis of native languages appear in the onymy.
The perspective of further research is to expand the search for the linguistic characteristics of this process, which consists in a more detailed description of the variability of the formants based on Celtic, Gaulish, Latin, Germanic, Anglo-Saxon and other elements, which later became independent word-formation elements of the German and French toponymic nomination, as well as linguistic phenomena explaining how and in what linguistic form derivational formants got a systemic character in accordance with the region of the country.
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Конфликт интересов: о потенциальном конфликте интересов не сообщалось.
Conflict of interest: no potential conflict of interest related to this article was reported.
Поступила в редакцию 23.11.2022 Received November 23, 2022
Поступила после рецензирования 23.01.2023 Revised January 23, 2023
Принята к публикации 10.06.2023 Accepted June 10, 2023
ИНФОРМАЦИЯ ОБ АВТОРАХ
Котенева Инна Анатольвна, кандидат филоло-гичеких наук, доцент кафедры немецкого и французского языков факультета иностранных языков педагогического института Белгородского государственного национального исследовательского университета, г. Белгород, Россия
Кривчикова Нэля Леонидовна, кандидат фило-логичеких наук, доцент кафедры немецкого и французского языков факультета иностранных языков педагогического института Белгородского государственного национального исследовательского университета, г. Белгород, Россия
INFORMATION ABOUT THE AUTHORS Inna A. Koteneva, Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of German and French Languages, Faculty of Foreign Languages, Pedagogical Institute, Belgorod National Research University, Belgorod, Russia
Nelja L. Krivchikova, Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of German and French Languages, Faculty of Foreign Languages, Pedagogical Institute, Belgorod National Research University, Belgorod, Russia
Мельникова Юлия Николаевна, кандидат фи-лологичеких наук, доцент кафедры немецкого и французского языков факультета иностранных языков педагогического института Белгородского государственного национального исследовательского университета, г. Белгород, Россия
Тимошилова Тамара Михайловна, кандидат филологичеких наук, доцент кафедры английского языка и методики преподавания факультета иностранных языков педагогического института Белгородского государственного национального исследовательского университета, г. Белгород, Россия
Yuliya N. Melnikova, Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of German and French Languages, Faculty of Foreign Languages, Pedagogical Institute, Belgorod National Research University, Belgorod, Russia
Tamara M. Timoshilova, Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of English Language and Teaching Methods, Faculty of Foreign Languages, Pedagogical Institute, Belgorod National Research University, Belgorod, Russia
