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16
Vaclav Blazek Masaryk University (Brno)
Indo-European nominal inflection in Nostratic perspective *
The paper summarizes some of the current views on the history and origins of Indo-European nominal declension, including a brief comparison of several hypotheses on the mechanism of arisal of the "thematic" type of declension (o-stems). The reconstructed paradigmatic system is subsequently compared with the respective systems for other language families that form part of the hypothetical Nostratic macrofamily: Semitic (and Afro-Asiatic in general), Kartvelian, Uralic. It is concluded that, since most of the case endings of Proto-Indo-European are explainable either through internal derivation within Indo-European itself or through comparison with other Nostratic languages, the situation points strongly towards an analytic nature of Proto-Nostratic.
Keywords: Historical linguistics, Indo-European languages, comparative morphology, Nostratic hypothesis.
0. One of the parameters employed in the so-called typological classification of languages is whether the languages in question use or do not use affixation, i. e. whether they express such nominal grammatical categories as case, number, gender, grade, etc., or such verbal categories as person, number, time, aspect, mood etc., by means of suffixes, prefixes, or infixes. Such languages are called synthetic. Languages without affixation, called analytic, use other grammatical tools to express these categories (if they are differentiated in the first place), such as (frequently) various auxiliaries and particles, as well as more or less firmly fixed word order. Synthetic languages are further divided into agglutinative and flective. A basic feature of the agglutinative languages is that each of their affixes bears only one function (cf. e.g. Cermak 1997: 178-80). This can be illustrated on the example of three specimen agglutinative languages, Turkish, Finnish, and Georgian, where it is easy to identify the case endings that are universal for both singular and plural numbers: Table 1. In addition, Turkish and Georgian use only one plural suffix. In Finnish, two plural markers are differentiated: -t in the nom.-acc. and -i-/-j- in oblique cases.
0.1. From the "European" point of view, languages that classify nouns into specific semantic fields via so-called class affixes may seem exotic. Class affixes are congruentially introduced in adjectives, pronouns, numerals and verbs (sometimes they are lacking in nouns as such, with the exception of kinship terms in Nakh languages or kinship and anatomical terms in Burushaski from Hindukush, where they are productive). Vladimir Skalicka (1945[2004]: 284-315) demonstrated that Swahili and other Bantu languages with class systems are flective inasmuch as several functions (e.g., class and number) may be cumulatively expressed with just one prefix. The same may be said about Bats, Chechen, and other languages with class prefixes spoken in the Northeastern Caucasus. On the other hand, the system of class prefixes in Aka-Bea on the South Andaman Island in the Indian Ocean bears apparent features of the agglutinative pattern: all plural prefixes are formed from the singular prefix by means of the universal plural morpheme -at-. It should be mentioned that Bats, Chechen, and Aka-Bea have their own case systems of agglutinative structure: Table 2.
* The present study was prepared thanks to the grant of the The Czech Science Foundation, P406/12/0655.
Journal of Language Relationship • Вопросы языкового родства • 11 (2014) • Pp. 19—38 • Blazek V., 2014
Table 1.
Turkish "house" Finnish "house" Georgian "son"
case sg. Pl. case sg. Pl. case sg. Pl.
nom. ev ev-ler nom. talo talo-t nom. svil-i svil-eb-i
acc. ev-i ev-ler-i acc. talo talo-t erg. svil-ma svil-eb-ma
gen. ev-in ev-ler-in gen. talo-n talo-j-en gen. svil-is svil-eb-is
dat. ev-e ev-ler-e allat. talo-lle talo-i-lle dat. svil-s(a) svil-eb-s(a)
loc. ev-de ev-ler-de ines. talo-ssa talo-i-ssa dir. svil-ad(a) svil-eb-ad(a)
abl. ev-den ev-ler-den abl. talo-lta talo-i-lta voc. svil-o svil-eb-o
instr. talo-n talo-i-n instr. svil-it(a) svil-eb-it(a)
part. talo-a talo-j-a
es. talo-na talo-i-na
trans. talo-ksi talo-i-ksi
elat. talo-sta talo-i-sta
ill. talo-on talo-i-hin
ades. talo-lla talo-i-lla
abes. talo-tta talo-i-tta
comit. — talo-i-neen
Abbreviations: abes. — abessive, abl. — ablative, adess. — adessive, acc. — accusative, all. — allative, comit. — comitative, dat. — dative, elat. — elative, erg. — ergative, es. — essive, gen. — genitive, ill. — illative, instr. — instrumental, loc. — locative, nom. — nominative, part. — partitive, pl. — plural, sg. — singular, trans. — translative.
Table 2.
Swahili (East Africa) Bats / Chechen (Northeast Caucasus) Aka-Bea (Andaman Islands)
class sg. Pl. class sg. Pl. class sg. Pl.
I. mu-lmw- wa- I. v- l vu- b- l du- I. ab- at-
II. mu- mi- II. j- l ju- d- l du- II. ar- arat-
III. li- ~ ji- ma- III. j- l ju- j- l ju- III. aka- akat-
IV. ki-lch- vi- IV. b- l bu- b- l bu- IV. ig-li- i-liti-
V. n-lny-l0- n-lny-l§- V. d- l du- d- l du- V. ong- oiot-
VI. u-lw- n-lma-l§- VI. b- l bu- d- l du- VI. ot- otot-
VII. ku- VII. b- l - j- l -
VIII. pa- VIII. d- l - j- l -
IX. ku-
X. mu-
Functions of the class prefixes:
Swahili: I. human beings; II. trees & plants, tools & products, some body parts, abstracts; III. paired body organs, fruits, liquids, big things, foreign words; IV. things; V. animals; VI. abstracts & extracts, names of countries; VII. verbal infinitives; VIII. locatives; IX. locatives; X. locatives.
Bats: I. male beings; II. female beings; III.-VIII. animals, inanimate nature, things, abstracts.
Aka Bea: I. body, back, thighs, lap, shins, calves, groin, elbows, arms, knees, ribs, navel, belly etc.; II. legs, hip, kidney, anus, urine, urinary bladder, peritoneum, gut, scrotum, buttocks; III. mouth, palate, chin, lips, tongue, throat,
pharynx, trachea, jaw, vertebra, saliva, breathe etc.; IV. eyes, eyebrow, eyelids, gum, face, forehead, ears, nose, cheeks, temples, teeth, shoulders, forearm, biceps, breasts, nipples, tears; V. hands, fingers & toes, fingernails, sole of the foot, heels, joints, spleen, small intestine; VI. heart, head, neck, chest, brain, nape, lungs, phlegm.
0.2. Indo-European languages have been cited as a typical example of flective languages. This supposes the presence of more or less stable word roots which are extended by derivational affixes and grammatical morphemes. These may bear several functions, e.g. Latin servi, formed from the nom. sg. servus "servant, slave", expresses both the gen. sg. m. and nom.-voc. pl. m., i.e. a single ending accumulates the grammatical meanings of case, number, and gender. As a sub-variant of the flective type, the introflective subtype has also been defined. This term refers to the so-called 'internal inflection', specified both on the affixes and the root of the word; as a rule, it is represented by vocalic alternations. As an illustrative example, we may cite the so-called 'broken' plurals of Semitic nouns, e.g. Classical Arabic ragulun "man", pl. rigalun, *aynun "eye", pl. *uyunun, qawsun "bow", pl. qusiyun, tagirun "merchant", pl. tigarun, rakibun "rider", pl. rakbun ~ Hebrew rokeb, pl. rekeb, himarun "ass", pl. hamirun (final -un in Arabic represents the so-called nunation that performs the function of a determinant and is neither a part of the root nor of the stem). In Indo-European nominal paradigms such vocalic alternations, which can be classified as internal inflection, appear too, and are usually specified as 'ablaut' or 'apophony'. Thus, in the paradigm of the word "water" different variants of the root are present in the nom. sg. *uod-r, loc. sg. *ud-en, nom.-acc. col. *ued-or (NIL: 706-07); the basic paradigm of the word "winter" is also reconstructed at least in three apophonic variants: nom. *gheiom, acc. *ghiem-m, gen. *ghim-os (Beekes 1995: 178). Even more important is the role of the ablaut in the Indo-European verb.
Naturally, it is very rare for any language to be in complete agreement with the criteria that define concrete language types in the typological classification of Skalicka. A more adequate statement is that in any one language one type is usually dominant, but other types may also appear, although they may be rudimentary or, vice versa, in statu nascendi.
1. Proto-Indo-European is generally seen as having had the same nominal word classes that are present in historically attested Indo-European languages, i.e. nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals. Numerals were declined the same way as nouns and adjectives, although this rule originally covered only numerals from 1 to 4; higher order numerals were indeclinable, just like adverbs, conjunctions, and particles. Pronouns had their own inflection system, frequently different from nominal inflection; both types of inflection could also influence one another. Nouns and adjectives (the latter serving as congruent attributes to governing nouns) differentiated three basic grammatical categories: number, case and gender. There were three numbers — singular, plural and dual, although the dual has not been preserved in all the branches. Traditionally, a system of 8 cases has been reconstructed, based on the situation in Vedic and Avestan. However, more modest case inventories in Greek, Celtic, Germanic, and especially in Anatolian imply the question whether a paradigm with fewer cases could reflect the original situation. The same issue is seen with grammatical gender: Brugmannian reconstruction operated with three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), but the Anatolian languages differentiated only two genders. This discrepancy may be solved by the assumption of two chronological phases. In the early phase, only two genders would be differentiated, expressing the opposition "active : inactive", whereas in the later phase, after the separation of the Anatolian branch, the traditional tripartite gender system would be introduced (Vavrousek 2008: 59). An alternative model assumes an original feminine gender and its elimination in the Anatolian branch (cf. Beekes 1995: 174).
1.1. From the point of view of word formation, an Indo-European noun consists of the root (sometimes extended with a derivational suffix) + stem-forming suffix + case ending. A good example may be the word *HierH^-tr-o-m "plough", reconstructed on the basis of Arm. arawr, Gr. apoTpov, Lat. aratrum, MIr. arathar, Welsh aradr, ON. ardr. It consists of the verbal root *HierH3- "to plough", the derivational suffix *-tr-, the stem-forming marker -o- classifying the word as a so-called o-stem, and the ending -m of the nom.-acc. sg. of the neuter gender. Out of all these segments, it is only the stem-forming suffix that determines the inflectional class to which the noun in question belongs. A basic division has been sought between so-called vocalic and consonantal stems. The o-stems and fl-stems are traditionally understood as vocalic, whereas the so-called ¿-stems and u-stems belong to the consonantal type, being resonants. If the -a of the fl-stems is reinterpreted in agreement with the laryngeal theory as *-eHi, the result will also be a consonantal coda; likewise, in the case of i- and M-stems, which, in their laryngealistic reinterpretation, are really iH- and uH-stems. In other words, the vocalic stems will be represented only by the o-stems, while all the other ones will (at least historically) be consonantal stems. In nominal paradigms with ablaut the cases are called strong if the stem has the full ablaut grade, and weak if the stem has the zero ablaut grade. The full ablaut grade generally appears in nom., acc., voc. sg. and pl. and usually in the loc. sg. (Szemerenyi 1996: 161).
1.2. When reconstructing Indo-European nominal inflection, syllabic accent should also be taken in account. This phenomenon, neglected by Neogrammarians, was given a new interpretation by Holger Pedersen (1926: 24), who himself came from the Neogrammarian milieu. For the consonantal stems he defined two types of inflection according to differences of accentuation: hysterodynamic with accent (Gr. 5uva^) always on the last syllable, and proterodynamic with accent moving between the first syllable and the stem-forming suffix.
In the 1970s his ideas were further developed by Karl Hoffmann, a representative of the so-called Erlangen School. Hoffmann defined 5 types of inflection depending on the position of accent (axpo^ "at the furthest point", npoxepo^ "in front, forward", a^i "on both sides of", uorepo^ "latter, behind", jaeao^ "in the middle") and its mobility (kinetic) or immobility (static): (1) akrostatic — accent always remains on the root; (2) proterokinetic — accent stays on the root in strong cases, shifts to the stem-forming suffix in weak cases; (3) hysterokinetic — accent always remains on the final syllable, which alternately coincides with the stem-forming suffix in strong cases and the case ending in weak cases; (4) amphikinetic — accent moves from the root in strong cases to the case ending in weak cases; (5) mezostatic — accent remains on the stem-forming suffix; if this suffix is preceded by another derivational suffix, accent shifts position between them (Szemerenyi 1996: 161-62).
2. The so-called thematic inflection is limited only to nouns extended by the vowel -o-(which shifts to -e- in the voc. sg.), the so-called o-stems. Unless indicated otherwise, in table 3-4 the reflexes of the IE words *ulk^o- "wolf" and *iugo- "yoke" are cited (see Beekes 1995: 190-92; GHL: 79-83; Fortson 2004: 113-16; Szemerenyi 1996: 182-88).
Apart from the singular (Table 3) and plural (Table 4), Proto-Indo-European also had a separate dual category (Tables 5-7), although it was not preserved in all daughter branches. Thus, in old literary Germanic languages the dual disappeared from the nominal morphology but remained in the pronominal and verbal systems. In Latin traces of the dual are preserved only in the numerals duo (dud by Plautus), duae, duo "two", and ambd, -ae,-d "both". In the Anatolian branch the traces of dual have been sought in designations of paired body parts, e.g. Hitt. sakuwa "eyes", Luw. aruta "wings", issara "hands", pata "feet" (Krasuxin 2004: 133; Szemerenyi 1996: 161). Because of homonymy of endings, the dual paradigm is less rich in comparison with plural even in those languages where the dual number was preserved.
Table 3.
sing. Vedic Hittite Greek Latin OIrish Gothic Lith. OCS. IE
nom. vfkas ishas "lord" AUKO?6 lupus14 fer24 wulfs34 vilkas vl'bk'b *-os
vok. vfka1 isha AuKe lupe15 fir25 wulf vilke vl'bce *-e
acc. vfkam ishan Aukov7 lupum16 fer26 wulf35 vilkq40 vl'k' *-om
nom.-acc. n. yugam yugan Zuyov8 iugum17 scel27 juk; ORun. horna "horn" Pr. lunkan41 igo *-om
gen. vfkasya ishas4 Aukolo9 -osio18 lupi19 ?-oiso28 fir29 ORun. -as36 wulfis37 Pr. -as42 = abl. = abl. *-os *-os-io *-i46
abl. vfkad antuhset5 e-ko-me-no10 lupö20 CIb. -ud30 vilko43 vl'ka42 *-öd < *-o-ed47
dat. vfkaya2 ishi Aukwl11 lupö21 fiur31 ORun. -ai38 vilkui vl'ku *-öi < *-o-ei
loc. vfke ishi o'lkol12 domi22 CIb. -ei32 dat. wulfa vilke44 vl'bce *-oi < *-o-i
inst. vfkena3 a-to-ro-qo13 lupö23 CIb. -u33 dat. wulfa39 vilku vl'komb45 *-oH1 < *-o-H1
Notes: see Beekes 1995: 190-92; GHL 79-83; Szemerenyi 1996: 182-88; 1) Absence of palatalization of the velar is explainable via paradigmatic levelling. 2) Final -a is a particle (Beekes 1995: 192). 3) Adapted from the pronominal inflection, cf. the instr. sg. of demonstratives ena, tena, etena, interrogative kena, relative yena, reflexive svena (Mac-donell 1916[2000]: 77, 106-12). 4) Corresponds to the gen. ending of other inflectional types. In the Luwian sub-branch the genitive is replaced by so-called possessive adjectives, formed by the suffix -assi- in Cuneiform Luwian and -asi- in Hieroglyphic Luwian. Szemerenyi (1996: 184, 187; following Mittelberger) derived them from the o-stem gen. in *-os-io. 5) Instr. sg. from antuhsas "man". Abl. sg. has the ending -az. 6) Cf. Myc. wo-no /woinos/ "vine". 7) Cf. Myc. to-ro-qo /trokwon/ "strap" or wo-i-ko-de, wo-ko-de /woikon-de/ "in the house". 8) Cf. Myc. e-ra3-wo /elaiwon/ "olive oil". 9) Cf. Myc. do-e-ro-jo /do(h)elojjo/ "servant". 10) Myc. toponym, which may preserve the abl. sg. in /-ö/. 11) Cf. Myc. a-to-ro-qo /anthrökwöi/; cf. Gr. avOpwno? "man". 12) Att. "at home"; cf. the Myc. toponym pu-ro /pulöi/ "in Pylos". 13) Myc. /anthrökwö/ (notes 6-13: see Bartonek 2003: 188-210 & Hajnal 1995: 23-24). 14) Cf. OLat. equos (Plautus), duenos (CIL I, 4), further Fal. Kaios, Ven. Voltiiomnos, Osc. hurz "grove", SPic. meitims "gift"?. 15) Cf. Fal. Uoltene, Umb. Serfe, Osc. paxope. 16) Cf. OLat. manom "hand", Fal. vinom "vine", Ven. ekvon "horse", Osc. hurtum, dolom "intent", SPic. meitimum. 17) Cf. OLat. donom "gift", Fal. duenom "good", Ven. donom & donon "gift", osk. sakaraklum, vol. pihom "of pious". 18) Cf. OLat. Popliosio Valesiosio = class. Lat. 'Publii Valerii' (Lapis Satricanus, 500 BC), Fal. Kaisiosio. 19) Cf. OLat. Aisclapi (CIL I, 440), argenti (Plautus) "of silver" (adj.), Fal. Marci, Ven. louki "of sacred grove". 20) Cf. OLat. fileod "to son", Osc. sakaraklud "to sanctuary". 21) Cf. OLat. Numasioi duenoi, later Aiscolapio, Fal. Kaisioi, Ven. murtuvoi "to dead", Osc. hurtui, SPic. brimeqlui. 22) Lat. "in homeland", lit. "at home"; cf. Osc. hurtei. 23) In a form such as lupö there was a merger of three cases — dative, ablative & instrumental sg.; cf. also Ven. instr. Voltiio (notes 14-23: see Meiser 1998: 134-35; UB: 228-30). 24) Goid. *uiros "man"; cf. CIb. ueidos "witness", Gl. tarvos "bull", Lep. Alkouinos, Ulkos. 25) Goid. *uire, cf. Gl. (Lezoux) nate "oh, son!" (LG: 143). 26) Goid. *uirom; cf. CIb. elaöunom, Gl. (Alise) celicnon "hall", but (Larzac) brictom "magic". 27) OIir. scel "message" < *sk»etlom (LEIA: S 39-40); cf. CIb. Belikiom, Lep. uinom "vine", Gl. (Chamalieres) ollon "all", meion "small". 28) Lep. gen. sg. Xosioiso. Metathesis? 29) Goid. *uiri, Ogam maqqi "of son"; cf. Gl. (Couchey) Segomari, (Todi) Trutikni, Lep. Askoneti, but CIb. -o in karuo etc. 30) CIb. Usamud. 31) Goid. *uiru; cf. CIb. ueidui, Lep. Pelkui, Gl. (Cavaillon) |3aAau5out & (Couchey) Alisanu. 32) CIb. kortonei, Gl. -e: uo duno derce "under the barrow", in Alixie "in Alesia".
33) CIb. auku, Gl. sunartiu "by good strength" (notes 24-33: see Lejeune 1971: 467; LG: 51-56; MLH: 396-400).
34) Cf. ORun. laukaz "garlic". 35) Cf. ORun. staina "stone". 36) ORun. Godagas. 37) Gmc. *-eso, adapted from the
pronominal inflection, cf. Goth. his "what", pis "that", OCS. ceso "what". 38) Cf. ORun. hahai. 39) Cf. the instr. sg. in OSas. dagu, OHG. tagu "by day". 40) Cf. Prus. deiwan "god". 41) Prus. "bast". 42) Prus. deiwas. 43) *-ad as in the a-stems (cf. Szemerenyi 1996: 183). 44) The diphthong remains fossilized in such adverbs as Lith. namie "at home", Prus. bitai "in the evening". 45) Levelled after other inflectional patterns (Erhart 1982: 120). The original ending, which should be *-a, may have been fossilized in the interrogative & relative OCS. adv. kogda, kbgda "when", if it is a compound of the pronominal root *ko-, *kb- and the word godb "time" (Wiedmann apud Brugmann 1911: 189). 46) Cf. also Alb. et "of father" < *atti : nom. ate; Toch. A Mahisvari "Mahisvari's", maybe also the genitive of kinship terms such as A pacri, B patri "of father" (Klingenschmitt 1992: 98-104). 47) Only the abl. sg. of the o-stems differs from the gen. sg., in other inflectional classes gen. & abl. sg. merge (with the exception of Italic, Celtiberian and Anatolian languages, where the dental ablative was extended in other inflectional classes). Its origin has been sought in the pronominal ablative of the type of Ved. mad, OLat. (also acc.) med (Praeneste), med (Plautus), Fal. med, met, similarly OLat. ted & sed, and perhaps Gl. *med & *sed in the syntagms to-med-ec-lai (Voltino, North Italy), met-ingi-set-ingi "between me and between her" (Chateaubleau; see Lambert 2001: 112). The ending is identified with the particle *ad < *Hed (Dunkel, Sihler etc.) or *eti ~ *oti < *Hieti ~ *H-loti (Neu, Tichy etc.), see Szemerenyi 1996: 187).
Table 4.
plur. Vedic Hittite Greek Latin OIrish Gothic Lith. OCS. IE
nom. vfkas ishes Aukol3 O.-U. -us9 lupt10 fir16 wulfos24 vilkal29 vl'bci *-ös < *-o-es *-oi
acc. vfkan1 EN.MES-US aukou?4 lupös11 firu17 wulfans vilkus30 vhky35 *-oms
nom.-acc. n. yuga Cuyd5 iuga12 scel(a)18 CIb. -a19 juka25 Prus. warto31 iga *-(e)H2
gen. vfkanam2 siunan "god" aukwv6 lupö-rum13 fer20 -o/-a26 wulfe27 vilkß32 vl'kb *-om < *-o-om
dat.-abl. vfkebhyas ishas -oibos14 fer(a)ib21 wulfam28 vilkams33 vl'kom' *-oi-bk/m-*-oi-os?
loc. vfkesu ishas Aukoictl7 lupts15 -ei22 vilkuose34 vl'cex' *-oi-su
inst. vfkais Aukol?8 lupts15 -uis/-us23 vilkals vl'ky36 *-ois37
Notes: see Beekes 1995: 192; Fortson 2004, 113-16; Szemerenyi 1996: 183-88; 1) Long -a- levelled after the nom. pl. -as. Better is preserved the acc. pl. in OAv. masiiSng, masiiqs-ca "man" (*"mortal") < *martianh, oans-ca; cf. Ved. mdrtyan, mdrtyams-ca (Hoffmann & Forssman 1996, 120). 2) Through influence of the n-stems. The primary gen. pl. is preserved e.g. in the syntagm devan janma "race of gods" (Szemerenyi 1996: 185). 3) Cf. Myc. o-no /onoi/ "donkeys". 4) The ending of the acc. pl. is preserved in Arg. ulov; "sons"; Myc. si-az-ro /sihalons/ : Gr. nom. sg. aiaAo; "fat hog". 5) Cf. Myc. do-ra /dora/ : Gr. Swpov "gift". 6) Cf. Myc. e-ra-po /elaphon/ : Gr. eAa^o; "deer". 7) Cf. Myc. te-o-i /the(h)oi(h)i/ : 8eo; "god". 8) Cf. Myc. de-so-mo /desmois/ : Gr. Seoyo; "strap" (notes 3-8: see Bartonek 2003: 188210; Hajnal 1995: 23-24). 9) Osc. Nuvlanus, SPic. Safinus, Umb. Ikuvinu. 10) Cf. OLat. peploe, besides epigraphic Virei. 11) Cf. OLat. deivos, Ven. deivos, Osc. feihuss, Umb. vitluf. 12) Cf. Umb. iuku & iuka. 13) Adapted from the pronominal inflection: oorum < *-usom < *-oi-s-om, cf. the Vedic demonstrative tesam, OCS. texb. The nominal gen. pl. is preserved in OLat. deom, Ven. Oterginon, Pael. Cerfum, CPic. Safinum, Osc. Nuvlanum. 14) Ven. ekvoibos, besides louderobos. 15) In Lat. the dat.-abl. pl. of o-stems in -is merged with two other cases, the loc. pl. in *-oi-su, and instr. pl. in *-ois. The diphthong is also preserved in OLat. qurois, poplois, Pael. puclois, Osc. feihuis, zicolois (notes 9-15: see UB: 229-30). 16) Goid. *uiri; cf. Gl. (Brioni) Tanotaliknoi, (Mailly-le-Camp) xaouxavoi & (Saint-Germain) Aresequani, Lep. Kasiloi, CIb. Alaboi. The original nom. pl. in *-os was preserved in OIrish voc. pl. firu < Goid. *uirus. 17) Goid. *uirus; cf. Gl. (Graufesenque) tuddus, CIb. ?matus. 18) Goid. *sknetla. 19) CIb. korta. 20) Goid. *uirom; cf. Gl. (Chama-liere) diiiuion & ande-dion, CIb. Titum. 21) Goid. *uiro[i]bi(s) (Thurneysen 1946: 182) with the ending *-bi(s), corresponding to the Gl. instr. pl. gobedbi, cf. dat. pl. in Gl. Rudiobo, Lep. Uvltiauobos, CIb. Uetikubos, similarly abl. pl. Nouantubos. 22) CIb. Lutiakei (Colera 2005: 124). 23) Gl. (Vaison) tooutlou; / (Graufesenque) Vindulus. 24) The pronominal nom. pl. in -ai appears in the Gothic strong adjective nom. pl. m. blindai "blind". Further cf. ORun.
arbijarjostez "most legitimate-to-inherit"?, besides later stAinAz "stones", ON. ulfar "wolves". 25) Cf. ORun. hag"lu "hail": nom. sg. n. hagala. 26) ORun. Wiwio, later flAinA, ON. daga, OEng. dxga, OSax. dago "days" < *-on. 27) Gothic gen. pl. m./n. in -e instead of expected +-o had perhaps to eliminate homonymy with the gen. pl. f. (Brugmann 1911: 238-39; Ringe 2006: 282). Kortlandt apud Beekes (1985: 142) explains -e from Gmc. *-e < *-ei-om, thus from the gen. pl. i-stems, whence the ending had to spread. 28) Cf. ORun. borumz "to sons". Kortlandt (apud Beekes 1985: 144) explains the vowel u in the OHG. dat. pl. tagum via u-umlaut caused by vocalization of the ending *-mus (notes 23-27: see Antonsen 1975: 18-19). 29) Cf. Prus. wijrai "men". 30) Lith. -us < *-uos < *-ons (Otr^bski III: 16). Cf. Prus. deiwans "gods". 31) Prus. "doors". 32) Cf. Prus. grikan : nom. sg. grtkas "sin". 33) Cf. OLith. [Dauksa's Postilla] waykamus = Lith. vaikams "to children". 34) The Lith. ending of loc. pl. could be the result of contamination with acc. pl. *-uons and postposition *-en, cf. Zemaitic loc. pl. in -unse (Otr^bski III: 16). 35) Sl. acc. pl. -y < *-ons. 36) Sl. instr. pl. -y < *-ois (Erhart 1982: 121). 37) Instr. pl. in *-ois (Gr., It., Balt.) or *-ois (II., Celt., Sl.) remains obscure. Maybe it is the instr. sg. in *-oH extended with non-singular *-oi- and pluralizing -s (otherwise Erhart 1982: 98; Szemerenyi 1985: 519-20).
Table 5.
dual. Vedic Avestan Greek Old Irish Lith. OCS. IE
nom.-acc. m.f. vfka, vfkau spada3 AÛKW7 fer < *uira vilkù vl'bka *-o-Hi
nom.-acc. n. yugé siiaodnöi4 Çuyw8 scél11 i(d)ze *-o-iHi
gen. = loc. qsaiiä5 = loc. fer < *uirou dviejaus12 = loc. *-oi-Hiös
loc. vfkayos1 zastaiiö6 Aûkollv9 dviejau12 vfaku *-oi-Hiou
dat.-abl.-inst. vfkabhyam asvebhyam2 zastöibiia6 aspaëbiiâ2 fer(a)ib < *uirobim vilkam vfakoma *-oi-bhioHi *-o-moHi
instr. o-mo-pi10 vilkam *-o-bh/miHi
Notes: see Beekes 1995: 194-95; Brugmann 1911: 282-83; Hoffmann & Forssman 1996; Szemerényi 1996: 183-85. 1) *-0i-H-i0u + -s, perhaps levelled after the gen. 2) "horse". 3) OAv. spada- "army". 4) OAv. siiaodna- "action", cf. YAv. saite "200", duiie, duuae-ca "2". 5) OAv. qsa- "share". 6) OAv. zasta- "hand". 7) Cf. Myc. po-ro /polo/ "two foals". 8) Ending of the m.-f. du. 9) Rix (1976: 141): *-oisin after the dat.-loc. pl. *-oisi with final nasal after the instr. du. *-oi-bhim; otherwise Beekes (1995: 195): *-oi-Hu-m? 10) Myc. /oimophi/ : Gr. oi^oç "bundle" (Hajnal 1995: 23). 11) Causes nasalization of the following initial: maybe due to contamination with the ending of nom. sg. n. *-om. More original is perhaps Gl. uercobreto (Thurneysen 1946: 182). 12) Lith. dveji "double".
Table 6.
eHz-stems Vedic Avestan Greek OIrish Lithuanian OCS. IE
nom.-acc. séne "army" uruuaire1 9ea 3 tuaith5 rankt "hands" rçce "hands" *-eH2-iHi
gen.-loc. sénayos uruuaraiia 8ea!v4 tuath6 rçku *-eH2-iHi-Hiou
dat.-abl.-ins. sénabhyam vqdßäbiia2 tuath(a)ib7 rankom rçkama *-eH2-bioHi *-eH2-moHi
Notes: see Beekes 1995: 194-95; Brugmann 1911: 284-85; Hoffmann & Forssman 1996: 122; Krasuxin 2004: 140; Szemerényi 1996: 188-90; 1) YAv. uruuara- "plant"; cf. OAv. ube, YAv. uiie "both". 2) YAv. vqdfia- "herd". 3) Gr. "goddess"; cf. Myc. pte-no /pterno/ : Gr. nxéçvn "heel", besides wo-ra-e /wora(h)e/ : Gr. wçr| "care" (Bartonëk 2003: 618; Hajnal 1995: 16). Final -a-e may reflect *-a(i)e < *-eH2-iHi (Rix 1976: 135). 4) Cf. Myc. wa-na-so-i /wanasso(j)i(n)/ : Gr. (p)àvaaaa "lady", besides Arc. gen.-dat. KQdvatuv : Att. KQ|vr| "spring, source" (Bartonëk 2003: 166, 612; Rix 1976: 135). 5) Goid. *tout-ï "races"; cf. OIr. mnai "two women" < *g^n-eH2-iHt. 6) Goid. *toutou levelled after the o-stems. 7) Goid. *toutabim (Thurneysen 1946: 189-90).
Table 7.
cons. stems Vedic YAvestan Greek OIrish Lith. OCS. IE
nom.-acc. m.f. pitara,-au1 nara3 naxéçe4 athir7 zmune11 kameni14 *-H1e
nom.-acc. n. namanv2 öaae5 ainm8 akï11 imeni, -e, oci *-iH1
gen.-loc. pitrós nara naxéçoLV6 athar kamenu *-H10u(s)
dat.-abl.-ins. pitfbhyam narabiia athr(a)ib10 akmenim13 kamem>ma *-bioH *-moH
Notes: see Beekes 1995: 194-95; Brugmann 1911: 294-97; 1) "two fathers"; 2) "two names"; 3) "two men"; 4) "two fathers", cf. Myc. pi-ri-je-te-re /prientere/ "two sawers" (Bartonek 2003, 255); 5) "eyes". 6) Ending of o-stems (Rix 1976: 160). 7) Goid. *atere "two fathers". 8) Goid. *anmeni "two names". 9) Goid. *atrous? 10) Goid. *atribim. 11) OLith. zmune "two men" (Fortson 2004: 105). 12) "eyes". 13) "to stones". 13) "two stones".
3. The issue of the origin of o-stems has been raised many times. Two hypotheses seem to rest on the best argumentative evidence:
3.1. Pedersen (1907: 152) mentioned that the subject of the transitive verb looked as if it had the form of the genitive (sigmatic case) if it was active, and as if it had the form of the instrumental case, if it was inactive. On the other hand, the subject and object of intransitive verbs seemed to have the form of the absolutive (i.e. asigmatic) case. This asymmetry between the valencies of transitive and intransitive verbs is summarized in Table 8 (see Beekes 1995: 193):
Table 8.
Verb Role Nominative system Ergative system
transitive verb subject nominative ergative
object accusative absolutive
intransitive verb subject nominative absolutive
Beekes (1985: 191-95; 1995: 193) and Kortlandt (2002: 217) have further developed Peder-sen's idea, assuming that the nominative syntax of old Indo-European languages was formed later and that the case system of the Proto-Indo-European language was primarily based on the ergative syntax. The same ending for the nom. and acc. neuter, originally designating inactive nouns, originated from the primary absolutive case, while the ergative was correlated with the active subject. According to Beekes, the sigmatic genitive-ablative developed from the ergative. During the transformation of the ergative system into the nominative one, the form reconstructed as CC-R-os became the nominative, a new case of subject; later, the vowel -o-spread to other cases as well. Schmalstieg (1997: 401-07) and Gamkrelidze & Ivanov (1984: 267-91, active typology) formulated their own theories assuming the ergative past of the IE syntax. For the implications of the ergative interpretation see Table 9.
3.2. Jean Haudry (1982: 36-38) formulated the idea that the o-stems originated from pronouns with a determining function that were added to a nominal base, thus playing the role of a postpositional article. For this solution there are typological parallels, e.g. in Balto-Slavic languages, where adjectives used in the attributive role are extended with the IE relative stem *io-!*ia-; postpositional determination with the use of demonstratives is also active in modern
Table 9.
case form <*) comments from the perspective of ergative interpretation
sg. nom. -0 in HD inflection and PD neuters (B 1985: 172)
-s act. identical with the sigmatic gen.-abl. sg., originally ergative (B 1985: 172-95)
-om inact. agens of the transitive verb (Pedersen 1907: 152; Schmalstieg 1997: 405-06: instr. of o-stems)
voc. -0 see B 1985: 99-108
acc. -m originally directive-terminative (B 1985: 198)
gen. -(o)s originally ergative (B 1985: 172-95); in Hitt. used for both gen. sg. & pl.
-"- o st. -osio < gen. *-os & relative *io (B 1985: 185; Nikolaev 2000)
-I cf. the suffix of affiliation *-iio- (*-iHo-?); see K 1994: 98-104; Meiser 1998: 135
abl. -os identical with the gen. sg. in *-(o)s, originally the ergative (B 1985: 172-95)
-"- o-st. -(o/e)t/d(i) cf. also Hitt. -az
dat. -(e)i on persons; dat. & loc. were originally one and the same case (B 1995: 173)
loc. -i on places & inactive nouns; originally identical with the dative (B 1995: 173); cf. Arm. herow, Gr. nepuai(v), ON. ifjord "last year", Olr. on n-urid "from last year" < *per-uti "year ago"
instr. -Hi cf. instr. pl. of the o-stems *-ois < instr. sg. *-oH + non-singular *-oi- + pluralizing -s
pl. nom. -es
-"- o-st. -oi plural of pronominal origin
-oi- non-singular affix of the o-stems, preceding the case ending
-H2 inact. collective
voc. = nom.
acc. -ms = acc. sg. -m + pluralizing -s in congruence to the nom. pl. in -es
gen. -om see Kortlandt 1978; in Hitt. used in both gen. sg. & pl.; Schmalstieg 1997: 405-06: erga-tive
abl. -ios > Arm. -j, II. *-bh(i)-ios
dat. -mus > BSl. *-mus; Gmc. *-muz
loc. -su ~ -si cf. Lat. mox, MWelsh moch "soon" < *mok-su; Alb. abl. pl. -sh: malesh "in mountains"; per-posh "down", posh-te "below" : oposho < *ped-si; Phryg. xeuxom "in villages" (K 1994: 313; H 2003: 129)
instr. -bhi originally probably without number distinction, cf. Gr. i^L "strongly", Myc. wi-pi-no-o /WtpH-no(h)os/, Hom. 'IAlo^lv ... xeixea "walls of Ilion" (Rix 1976: 158-59; Ba 2003: 274); II. dat. of personal pronouns: OAv. maibiia, taibiia, ahmaibiia, yusmaibiia vs. Ved. tubhya(m), asmabhyam, yusmabhyam; OCS. dat.-loc. tebe, sebe, instr. tobojg, sobojg (see Br 1911: 187)
Notes: B = Beekes; Ba = Bartonek; Br = Brugmann; H = Hajnal; K = Klingenschmitt. Identification of non-singular morpheme *-oi- and pluralizer -s in some cases imply an agglutinative structure.
Balkanian or Scandinavian languages. So-called mimation & nunation in Semitic languages also generally represent postpositional determination. In Indo-European, a good ancestral candidate could be identified in the Anatolian pronoun -a- of the 3rd person, attested only in postposition (HEG 1-2, 6-7): Table 10.
Table 10.
case Hittite Palaic C. Luwian Hier. Luwian Lydian *
nom. sg. c. -as -as -as -(a)s -as *-os
nom.-acc. sg. n. -at -at -ata -(a)ta -ad,-at *-ot
acc. sg. c. -an /-un -an -an -an -av *-om
nom. pl. c. -e -as *-oi
nom.-acc. pl. n. -e -e *-oi
acc. pl. c. -us *-oms
acc. pl. n. -at -ata -(a)ta *-ot
4. While summarizing the preceding partial reconstructions, it becomes apparent that the most difficult task is to establish the original protoforms of the ablative, dative and instrumental plural. It is natural to suppose some mutual levelling, merging, and contamination. These processes are summarized in Table 11 (see Brugmann 1911: 120; Beekes 1985: 144-46), whence the following case protosystem may be postulated (Table 12) to explain the partial case systems in daughter branches.
5. Internal reconstruction should be followed with external comparison. Interpretations are possible on both typological and genetic levels, provided that the Proto-Indo-European language was not completely isolated.
5.1. Semitic noun inflection uses forms both with and without determination, the latter expressed with the postpositional article in the form *-m ('mimation') or *-n ('nunation'). See Table 13 (Dolgopolsky 1991; Lipinski 1997; Blazek 2006).
5.1.1. Semitic languages form one branch of the Afroasiatic macrofamily. Table 14 summarizes the correspondences in case endings, prepositions & postpositions between the (sub)branches of AA.
5.2. Another language family in the neighborhood of Indo-European is Kartvelian. Its nominal declension is a transparent case of the agglutinative model, cf. the paradigm of *kaci-"man": Table 15.
5.3. Another important language family in the neighborhood of Indo-European is Uralic. The agglutinative structure is also typical for Uralic languages.
5.3.1. The nominative has been reconstructed as unmarked in the Uralic protolanguage. However, it is remarkable that in several Fenno-Ugric languages a special nominative form was generated out of demonstratives or demonstrative suffixes of the 3rd person according to the scenario described by Haudry in connection with the o-stem IE nominative in *-s (§3.2): Table 16.
5.3.2. Other cases are represented in the Uralic languages as follows: Table 17.
6. Finally, from the point of view of the Nostratic theory of V. M. Illich-Svitych, A. Dol-gopolsky and other scholars, it is legitimate to compare the Proto-Indo-European case system with reconstructed case systems of neighboring language families so as to establish the number of common inherited morphemes: Table 18.
Table 11.
case IE II Arm. Gr. Messap. Italic Celtic Gmc. BSl.
dat. pl. *-mus *-mus
> *-mos
abl. pl. *-ios -j2
> *-bhios -bis3 *-bhos to o -bh *
ins. pl. *-bhi1 -bh * *-bhi(s) *-bhi to -bh *
> -bas4 *-mi5 *-mis6 *-miHs
dat. pl. *-mus
Notes: 1) The same suffix probably appears in Hitt. kuwapi "where, when" (HEG 4: 229-32). 2) Arm. -]in abl. pl. of personal pronouns men], jen] is derivable from *-ios (Kortlandt 1984: 103-04 = 2003, 50; Beekes 1985: 144). 3) Mes-sap. abl. pl. ogrebis, tatdebis, valeabis (see MLM II). 4) Messap. dat. pl. Laidehiabas, Logetibas. 5) Cf. the Olr. dat. pl. n-stems of the type anm(a)imm from ainm "name"; already Brugmann (1911: 188) thought about this solution and Hamp (1996) later returned to it. 6) See WGmc. dat. pl. Vatvims & Aflims, corresponding to Lat. Vatviabus & Afli-abus, and OEng. dat. pl. dxm from the demonstrative se "that" with i-umlaut (Brugmann 1911: 262, 264).
Table 12.
number singular plural dual
case / type athematic thematic athematic thematic athematic thematic
nom. anim. *-s *-os *-es *-os < *-o-es *-Hi *-o-Hi
voc. *-0 *-e *-es *-os < *-o-es *-Hi *-o-Hi
acc. anim. *-m *-om *-ms *-oms *-Hi *-o-Hi
nom.-acc. n. *-0 *-om *-H2 *-eH2 *-iHi *-o-iHi
gen. *-s *-os(-io) *-om *-om *-Hiös *-oi-Hiös
abl. *-s *-öd < *-o-ed *-ios *-oi-os = dat. = dat.
dat. *-ei *-oi < *-o-ei *-mus *-oi-mus *-möHi *-oi-möHi
loc. *-i *-oi *-su *-oi-su *-Htou *-oi-Hiou
instr. *-H *-oH *-bhi(s) *-oi-bH(s) *-bhiHi *-oi-bhiHi
Notes: see Beekes 1995: 173; Fortson 2004: 113.
Table 13.
case * Sem. Akk. * Ebl. Amarna Ugar. Hebr. Aram. ClArab. EpNAr. EpSAr. Geez
sg. indet.
nom. -u -0 -u(m?) -0 -0 -u -V
acc. -a -0 -a(m?) -0 -0 -a -V -a
gen. -i -0 -i(m?) -0 -0 -i -V
loc. -uma -um -üm -ama -VmV -om -Ü -u -u
dir.-dat. -a/is -is -is -h -a(h)
pred. -a -0 -a -0 -0 -a -a
sg. det.
nom. -u-m -um -um -u(m) -0 -0 -un -Vm -0
acc. -a-m -am -a(m) -a(m) -0; adv. -am -0; adv. -a -an -Vm -a
gen. -i-m -im -im -i(m) -0 -0 -in -Vm -0
du. indet.
nom. -a -a -a /-a/ -a
acc.-gen. -ay -i /-e/ -e -e -ay -ay -y
pred. -a -a -a
du. det.
nom. -a-ni -an -an -m /-ami/ -m -ani -n -n(y) Q. -my
acc.-gen. -ay-ni -in -ayn -ema/i -m /-emi/ -ayim -ayni -yn
pl. A indet.
nom. -Ü -Ü -Ü -u /-Ü/ Yu. -w
acc.-gen. -i -I -i -i /-i/ Yu. -y -i
pred. -Ü -Ü -Ü -Ü -w -Ü
pl. A det.
nom. -ü-ma -um(a) /-Üma/ -Üna
acc.-gen. -i-ma -im(a) /-ima/ -im -in -ina -VnV
pl. B indet.
nom. -at-u -at -t -öt -at -atu
acc.-gen. -at-i -at -t -öt -at -ati
pred. -a -a -a -a -a
pl. B det.
nom. -at-u-m -atum -atum -t -öt -atun -at
acc.-gen. -at-i-m -atim -atim -t -öt -atin -at
Table 14.
Semitic Egyptian Berber Cushitic: Beja Agaw ECush. Dah. SCush. Omotic
*-u1 *-u1 *-u24 *-u24? *-u24 *-u1
*-i24 or *-i24? *-i24 *-i24 *-i/-y1
*-i2 *-i2 *-i5 *-i2 -i2 *-i2 *-i2
*-a3 *-a3 *-a3* *-a25 *-a25? *-a25 *-a25 -a43=3a? *-a25
n/ay19 *-? 26 -i(i)2=30? *J? 26 -7\31 *i41
*-a/is4 js14 *3S20 *-sa/i27 -s35 *-s26 *-sa/i27 *sa44 *-s26
*-uma5 m15 *-ma42 *-ma42 ?*maa48 ?A.*-m51
*ka6 *-kV28 -ka36 *-kV28 *koo44 *-kV45
*la/i7 nj16 *-la/i29 *-li29 *-la/i29 *-7ilay40
*?adi8 *day21 *-di29 -d/-t37? *-di40 *-d(d)i29 -da29 *-r49
*?ittu/i/a9 *-tti30 -d/-t37? *-tti30 Ye. - ta5
*?ina10 jn17 *Hm22 *-na/i31 -na38, -nee39 *-ni31 *-nV46
*?ar-n jr18 *Har23 *?ar-32 *?ar32 *hari45 *-rV47
*wa12 *-wa33 *-wa41 *-wa32 *wa39 *-u/-w26
*ba/i13 *-b34 -b34 h. -beyyo50
*-ay52+53 -j53 *-i54
Notes: see Blazek 2006; 1 nominative, 2 genitive, 3 accusative, 3a adverbial accusative, 4 dative-terminative, 5 locative, 6 simulative ("as, like")-comitative ("with"), 7 "to", 8 "up to", 9 comitative ("with"), 10 locative-inessive ("in, on"), 11 Jibbali ?er "towards", 12 "and", cf. Arabic wa-llahi "by God" (Sasse 2003: 139), 13 locative ("in, at, by"), 14 "as", 15 "in, with, from; as", 16 "belonging to", cf. Coptic la "possessing", 18 "by", cf. Coptic (S) ara- "to, at; for", 19 dative ("to" = "a"), 20 "to, at, by", 21 "in (the middle), inside", 22 "in, at, to", 23 "to, till, as far as", 24 subject, 25 absolutive = object, 26 dative, 27 dative-benefactive, 28 dative-simulative, 29 locative, 30 locative-ablative-instrumental, 31 instrumental, 32 allative-directive ("towards"), 33 adessive-directive, 34 adessive-ablative, 35 locative-genitive, 36 comparative, 37 simulative ("as"), 38 instrumental, 39 ablative, 40 comitative, 41 directive-allative, 42 Dullay "to", 43 in adverbs of the type of Proto-Iraqw *gawda "on" vs. West Rift *gaba "summit, top of the mountain", Proto-Iraqw *?afda "by, beside" vs. West Rift *?afa "mouth", 44 causal-benefactive, 45 instrumental-directive, 46 instrumental-directive-locative, 47 comitative-dative, 48 Alagwa maa "then, afterwards" (Kiessling 2002: 377), 49 -r in *dir "by, on", derived from *dii "place", or ?amor "by, on", from *?amoo "way" (Kiessling 2002: 424-25), 50 directive, 51 direct object, 52 Hebr. -e pl. in status constructus m., Aram. -e pl. in status determinus, 53 dual, 54 e.g. Kemant azi pl. from aza "fish"; cf. Chadic *-ay pl. (Illic-Svityc 1971: 285).
Table 15.
case / number Georgian Laz Mingrelian Svan Kartvelian
sg. kac-i koc-i koc-i cäs nom. *-i (F 211)
nom. Pl. kac-eb-i / kac-n-i koc-ep-e koc-ep-i cäs-är pl. *-eb (F 145) pl. *-n (F 311) pl. *-ar (F 38)
erg. sg. kac-ma koc-ik koc-k cäs-d
Pl. kac-eb-ma / kac-ta koc-epe-k koc-e(n)-k cäs-är-d
dat. sg. kac-s(a) koc-is kos / koc cäs-s dat. *-s (F 358)
Pl. kac-eb-s(a)/ kac-ta koc-epe-s koc-e(n)-s cäs-är-s
gen. sg. kac-is(a) koc-is(i) koc-is(i) cäs-i(s) gen. *-isi (F 215)
Pl. kac-eb-is(a) / kac-ta koc-is(i) koc-ep-is(i) cäs-are-(s)
dir. sg. kac-ad(a) koc-isa tran. koc-o koc-isa cäs-d advr. *-ad (F 32) dir. *-is!-a (F 215)
Pl. kac-eb-ad(a) koc-epe-sa koc-ep-isa cäs-är-d
abl. sg. = dir. koc-ise(n) koc-ise —
Pl. = dir. koc-epe-se(n) koc-ep-ise —
instr. sg. kac-it(a) koc-ite(n) koc-it(i) cäs-sw instr. *-it (F 213)
Pl. kac-eb-it(a) koc-epe-te(n) koc-ep-it(i) cäs-är-sw
fin. sg. 3vel-isad — koc-iso(t) 3winel-isd dir. *-isi-d (F 215)
Pl. 3vel-eb-isad — koc-ep-iso(t) 3winel-är-isd
tran. sg. = dir. — koc-o = dir.
Pl. = dir. — koc-ep-o = dir.
voc. sg. kac-o — — —
Pl. kac-eb-o / -n-o — — —
Notes: See Jost Gippert <http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de>; on reconstructions, see Fähnrich 2007 = F.
Table 16.
language indet. sg. det. sg. indet. Pl. det. pl. origin of suffix
Mordvin tolga "feather" tolgas "that f." tolgat "feathers" tolgat'na "those f." sa, se "that" : ne "these"
Udmurt iz "stone" izez "that s." izjos "stones" izjosiz "those s." -z suffix of 3rd person sg.
Komi vok "brother" vokis "that b." vokjas "brothers" vokjasiz "those b." -s suffix of 3rd person sg.
Notes: See Szinnyei 1910: 62.
Table 17.
case Ural./FU BFin. Saami Mordvin Mari Permic Hung. Ob-Ugr. Samoy.
gen. *-n *-n *-n -n -n *-n
acc. *-m *-n *-m -n -m Ugr. *-mp4; Ma. *-mV *-m
loc. *-na/*-nä *-na/*-nä *-ne -na/-ne -na -yn -n *-nV *-nV
loc. *-tti *-ttik, *-ten -t' -t tran. -ti -tt -t
abl. *-8a/*-8ä *-8a/*-8ä1 *-8e -do -c *-8
dat.-lative *-ni Fi. -n2 Est. -ni3 -n *-n -nyi *-na *-ni
lative *-ka/*-kä *-k *-ke -va -ka *-e -e, -a *-Y
lative *-j Fi. -i Est. -ja *-i -e Kh. -j, -i
lative *-s5 *-s *-s -s -s
Pl. *-t *-t *-t -t -t *-t *-t
Pl. *-j-6 *-i- *-i- -i7 *-i
Pl. *-n-8 *-n- *-n
du. *-ka/*-kä *-ka ketto9 "2" *-y-(an) *-kV
Notes: see Collinder 1960: 282-303; Hajdu 1985: 292-311; Hofirkova & Blazek 2012; Szinnyei 1910: 63-84; 1) Partitive. 2) Archaic dative-genitive: Jumala-n kiitos "thank god". 3) Terminative. 4) Ugr. *-mp < acc. *-m + pronoun of the 3rd person sg.*sa/*sä. 5) Szinnyei 1910: 71-72. 6) Plural of oblique cases. 7) Cf. Hung. kez-e "his hand" : kez-e-i "his hands". 8) Pronominal. 9) Attributive ket : absolutive ketto ~ Mansi kitiy, E.Khanty kätkan "2" with the dual suffix.
Table 18.
case IE (*) Afroasiatic Kartvelian Uralic Altaic Dravidian
-0 0 0 0
sg. nom.-voc. i- & «-stems *-i & *-« *-i *-i
-s act.
-om inact. *-m/*-n inact.
acc. < term. -m ?loc.-dir. *-(«)ma acc. *-m *(-)be *am/*-an
gen.-abl. -(o)s ?dat.-term.- dir. *-is(a) gen. *-isi
gen. (o-stems) -i gen. *-i gen. *-i (Gond.)
abl. (o-stems) -(o/e)t/d(i) loc.-abl.-instr.-com. *-ittV instr. *-it loc. *-tti gen. obl. *-(t)t«
dat.-loc. -(e)i dat.-loc.-abl. *-iy lative *-j ?acc. *-ay
loc. heter. -en1 instr.-dir.-loc.-abl. *-na/i loc. *-na/*-n'a dat.-instr. *-nV loc. *-in /*-il instr. *-an
advr. -dhi,-dhe2 loc.-com. *-di advr. *-ad abl. *-5a/*-öä dat.-loc. *-da / *-d« soc. *-ot«
instr. -Hi dat.-instr. *-?i instr. *-e (Gond.)
pl. nom. -es *-s-
-"- o stems -oi du. *-ay-
-oi- obl. *-ay4 pl. obl. *-j-4
pl. nom.-acc. -H2 inact. pl.-coll. *-ah3 pl. ntr. *-a
acc. -ms < *-s-m?
gen. -om ?Ge. erg. -ma
dat. -m«s ?loc.-dir. *-(«)ma
loc. -s« ~ -si ?dat.-term.- dir. *-is(a) dat. *-s or Svan instr. -sw < *-siwV? lative *-s
instr. -bhi loc.-abl.-dir. *(-)ba / *(-)bi
Notes: 1) Base of the oblique cases of heteroclitics, originally probably locatives of the type of Vedic udan "in water". 2) Greek o'lko8l "at home", oupavoQi "in heavens", tco8l "where?", ev8ev "from here", further Vedic kuha "where?", Old Avestan kuda, Old Church Slavonic kbde id., sbde "here" etc. (Brugmann 1911: 167, 728). 3) Semitic plural of biradical substantives: Hebrew ?amahot "she-servants" = Syrian ?amhata; Syrian semahe "names", 7abahe & ?abahata "fathers" = Arabic ?abahat; Arabic sitah "backs", sifah "lips", siyah "sheep" (pl.), miyah "waters"; further 7ilah "god" (pl.) = Hebrew Hohim, Syriac 7allaha (Brockelmann 1908: 455). Cushitic plural in *-a is probably of the same origin. 4) Illic-Svityc 1971: 285-86: IE+AA+Uralic; Kortlandt 2002: 217: IE. *-oi-+ Uralic *-j-.
Conclusion. Aharon Dolgopolsky (2005: 35) used to wonder if the original grammatical structure of Nostratic was synthetic or analytic. The present analysis of the Indo-European nominal inflection in Nostratic context confirms his preference of the analytic structure, with regard to the fact that most of the Indo-European case endings are derivable from various deictic or adverbial particles, some on the Indo-European level (usually with Nostratic roots), e.g. loc. sg. in -en- (Skt. udan) vs. *Hien- "in", others on the Nostratic level at least, e.g. loc. pl. in *-su vs. Kartvelian *suwa- "in the middle" or Central Cushitic *saw- "heart" (Dolgopolsky 2005: 17-19).
Abbreviations
A. — Aroid, ab(l). — ablative, abs. — absolutive, adj. — adjective, adv. — adverb, advr. — adverbialis, Aeol. — Aeolic, acc. — accusative, Akk. — Akkadian, Alb. — Albanian, act. — active, Ar. — Arabic, Aram. — Aramaic, Arg. — Argive, arch. — archaic, Arc. — Arcadian, Arm. — Armenian, Att. — Attic, Av. — Avestan, Balt. — Baltic, BFin. — Balto-Finnic, Bret. — Breton, BSl. — Balto-Slavic, c. — genus communis, Celt. — Celtic, Clb. — Celtibe-rian, Cl. — Classic, col. — collective, com. — comitative, cons. — consonantic, Copt. — Coptic, Corn. — Cornish, Cret. — Cretan, Cush. — Cushitic, Cz. — Czech, Dah. — Dahalo, dat. — dative, det. — determined, dir. — directive, Dor. — Doric, du. — dual, E — East, Ebl. — Eblaite, Eng. — English, ep. — epigraphic, erg. — ergative, Est. — Estonian, f. — feminine, Fal. — Faliscan, Fi. — Finnish, fin. — finalis, FU. — Fenno-Ugric, Ge. — Georgian, gen. — genitive, Gl. — Gaulish, Gmc. — Germanic, Goid. — Goidelic, Gond. — Gondwan group, Goth. — Gothic, Gr. — Greek, H. — Hadiyya, HD — hysterodynamic, Hebr. — Hebrew, heter. — heteroclitic, Hitt. — Hittite, Hom. — Homeric, Hung. — Hungarian, id. — idem, II. — Indo-Iranian, inact. — inactive, indet. — indetermined, ins(tr). — instrumental, Ir. — Irish, It. — Italic, Kh. — Khanty, Lat. — Latin, Latv. — Latvian, Laz. — Lazish, Lep. — Lepon-tic, Lesb. — Lesbian, Lith. — Lithuanian, loc. — locative, Luw. — Luwian, Lyd. — Lydian, Lyc. — Lycian, m. — masculine, M — Middle, Ma. — Mansi, Marr. — Marrucine, Mars. — Marsian, Megr. — Megrelian, Messap. — Messapic, Mord. — Mordvin, Myc. — Mycenaean, n. — neuter, N — North, nom. — nominative, O — Old, obl. — oblique, OCS. — Old Church Slavonic, OHG. — Old High German, ON. — Old Nordic (incl. Old Icelandic), ORun. — Old Runic, Osc. — Oscan, Pael. — Paelignian, PD — proterodynamic, Phryg. — Phrygian, Pic. — Pice-man, p— proto-, pl. — plural, Pr(us). — Prussian, pred. — predicative, Q. — Qatabanian, S — South, Samoy. — Samoyedic, sg. — singular, Skt. — Sanskrit, Sl. — Slavic, soc. — sociative, suf. — suffix, Svan. — svansky, Sx. — Saxon, Syr. — Syriac, term. — terminative, Toch. — Tocharian, tran. — transformative, Ugar. — Ugaritic, Ugr. — Ugric, Umb. — Umbrian, Ved. — Vedic, Ven. — Venetic, voc. — vocative, Vol. — Volscan, W — West, Y — Young, Ye. — Yemsa, Yu. — Yudeo-.
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В. Блажек. Индоевропейское именное склонение в ностратической перспективе.
В статье обобщены текущие представления об истории и происхождении системы именного склонения в индоевропейских языках, а также вкратце сравниваются несколько гипотез о причинах возникновения т. н. «тематического» склонения. Реконструированная парадигматическая система далее сравнивается с соответствующими системами, восстановленными для других ветвей гипотетической ностратической макросемьи — семитской (и, шире, афроазиатской), картвельской, уральской. Автор заключает, что, поскольку большинство падежных окончаний праиндоевропейского языка этимологизируются либо на основе самостоятельных индоевропейских лексем, либо на внешнем уровне (при сравнении с другими ностратическими языками), это можно расценивать как серьезный аргумент в пользу аналитического характера пранострати-ческого языка.
Ключевые слова: Историческое языкознание, индоевропейские языки, сравнительная морфология, ностратическая гипотеза.
