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DOI 10.47475/2500-0365-2022-17409
FEMINIZATION OF SPORTS
V.D. Ivanov1, O.V. Marandykina2
1 Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia 2 Moscow State Linguistic University. Moscow, Russia
This article deals with the state of the problem according to publications on the Elibrary. It reveals the major trends in the growth of women's sports, the role and position of women in sports competitions. It considers both psychological and physiological characteristics of women engaged in traditionally male sports. Women's sports is rapidly evolving, and there are more and more new sports and types of sports involving women.
Keywords: sports and women, women in sports, feminization of sports.
Relevance
The relevance of this issue goes back to its novelty. The feminization of sport began relatively recently or more detailed in the twentieth century. The emergence of movements for women's rights and emancipation brought more and more spheres of public life into the reach of young women. There was not only the emergence of primarily female sports, but also the feminization of sports that were originally considered male, for example, the feminization of weightlifting. According to the experts, involvement of women in various sports makes competitions look more diverse and spectacular, and women become more confident and have a greater ability for self-fulfilment.
Also the importance of the current issue of study underlies the insufficient research of the historical aspect of women's sports. Although women's sport started to develop significantly in the twentieth century, it had existed even before that time. The origin of women's sport, especially with regard to the feminization of sport in antiquity through the prism of myths and legends, raises a special interest since it allows us to review the development of women's sport through time.
Additionally, nowadays the strict polarisation of the rules of gender behaviour and the clear division of professions into male and female (although there is still a list of professions that are forbidden for women) is disappearing. Presently girls are mastering professions that a hundred years ago were considered to be men's professions. There is a convergence of behaviour forms, which are based on the distribution of masculine and feminine roles. It is manifested most vividly in the emancipation of modern female athletes and in the increasing feminization of modern sports.
Researchers have a controversial view on women's pursuit of high achievement in many sports. The im-
pact of sports on the female body, psyche, demeanour, reproductive function, and even gender expression is widely researched and discussed now. Social aspects of female athletes' lives are also being analysed: their careers, families, and personal lives. Scientists claim that female athletes are poorly adapted to social life, they also manifest various physiological disorders associated with the body formation and reproductive function. Many female athletes have trouble socialising outside of sports once their careers are over. That is why research on the effects of sports on personal growth and development in other areas besides professional sports careers is relevant.
This area of research is also important since many researchers point out the lack of specialised training programs in different kinds of women's sports. Extensive research on women's sports and the feminiza-tion of sport is necessary to develop a training plan that considers the physiological characteristics of the female body and its ability to adapt to the stresses and strains of training and competitions.
The issues the authors address on the subject.
The history of the origin and evolution of women's sports in the world [1; 2; 19; 20], in different countries [6; 7; 8; 20] and in the regions of Russia [10].
Research on methods of physical education of girls and young women in the ancient era [1].
Psychological adaptation of women in sports, psychological and physiological characteristics of women engaged in traditionally male sports [3; 11; 14].
The impact of professional sports on women's health, the physiological features of the female body, and the association of certain diseases in women in professional sports [2; 3; 5; 11; 12; 14; 15]. The influence of sports on the formation of gender in women [2; 11; 13].
The influence of the general development of sport on the development and effectiveness of women's sport specifically [6].
Government measures aimed at promoting women's sports in various countries [7]. The current state of women's sports in different countries [8].
The influence of gender stereotypes on the feminization of certain sports and the development of women's sports in general [9].
Shortage of systematised knowledge about the functioning of the female body during training and competition [10].
Problems of gender feminism in the modern sports movement [17].
The purposes, objectives set by the authors to address this topic.
"To identify the beginnings of women's physical education" and to characterise the manifestations of women's sports in antiquity, to demonstrate the influence of Spartan education, to introduce the first young women who distinguished themselves in sports [1].
To review the social and biological (including psychological) factors of women's sport in detail, to consider thoroughly the concept of "traumatism" in women's sport [2]. To review trends in modern women's sports of different levels and kinds, to consider methods of express health assessment of female athletes for individual health prognoses [2].
The question of whether men's sports facilitate the masculinization of women or, conversely, whether female athletes who are characterised as being more masculine tend to choose these sports [3; 13; 14] has been investigated.
To consider current trends in sports, including women's sports. To examine the principles and regularities of sports training [4; 13; 15; 16].
To address the impact of professional sports on women's style and quality of life [5].
To illustrate with concrete examples the achievements in women's sports of different countries [7; 8].
To identify gender stereotypes in specific women's sports and in specific age groups [9].
To study the issues of improvement of social adaptation of female athletes to social life, to study the features of the female athletes' personalities [15].
To examine the evolution of women's sports in the modern world and to disclose the problem of gender stereotypes in sports [20].
The materials and methods used in the study.
Historical ancient texts and historical research literature (textbooks, dictionaries) related to the topic of women's sports were analysed [1].
The medical researches related to the masculiniza-tion of women engaged in men's sports were studied to identify differences between masculine and feminine women [3].
A sociological survey among highly qualified female athletes (Candidate Masters of Sports (KMS), Masters of Sport (MS), Masters of Sports of International Class (MSMK), Honoured Masters of Sports (ZMS)) was conducted [5]. An "essay survey" was conducted and the "qualitative-quantitative content of the essays" was analysed [9]. A psychological testing of a specially selected group of reviewers was performed [10].
The biographies of famous women who do not consider sport as their main activity were studied in order to find the interrelation between their career success and their professional or amateur sports activities [12].
A systematic analysis of the scientific and methodological literature concerning the specific features of female athletes was performed [15].
Methodological literature was analysed, including manuals for Physical Education Universities and various manuals describing both the general theory and methodology of training and recommendations on making a training plan for particular sports [16].
Questionnaires were conducted and their results were researched, a conference on the topic of the study was held with a survey among students [17].
A survey among female student-athletes was conducted to determine the degree of masculinity in the psyche of today's young women [18].
The results of the research
The research revealed the stagnation of the sport management sphere, particularly the sponsorship of women's sport [2]. The sphere of women's sports is progressing intensively, featuring the introduction of new sports and kinds of sports; it is necessary to give more precise definition of women's sports because it can refer both to women's sports exclusively and to the participation of women in traditionally male sports; female physical abilities develop correspondingly to the individual capacities of the body; the regulation of both exclusively female sports and the participation of women in sports combined with men must be prompt, since both of these of kinds of women's representation in sports develop quickly [2]. Early signs of health impairment are key for the prognosis of professional specialisation of female athletes [2].
"Currently, there is a strong tendency: the mas-culinization of women and the feminization of men" [3].
The development of women's sports necessitates a deeper research for identifying the most effective ways of training female athletes as well as the ways
of achieving good results without harming their health [4].
Opinions of professional female athletes on the effects on appearance, personality, and health. Many female athletes report that "...they are haunted by illnesses and injuries". It was found on the basis of the survey that the training tactics of female athletes during and after pregnancy are individual. Sports exert a positive impact on women's health, emotions, and personality growth. Sports activities produce different effects on pregnancy and childbirth [5; 13].
The construction of various modern sports facilities, gyms, swimming pools, fitness centers, with female coaches, contributes to the popularization and development of women's sports, thus attracting more girls into sports, as they feel more confident and comfortable with coaches of their own sex [6].
Women's sports are poorly developed in some countries, and women often do not take prominent positions in sports. Professional female athletes are rare; it is necessary to popularise women's sports in the countries, to create various women's sports facilities in localities [8].
Gender stereotypes inhibit the feminization and development of certain sports, especially those that are considered traditionally masculine [9].
Sports are a privilege not only for sportswomen, but also for many active and successful women who are not involved in professional sports [12].
Modern women's sport is characterised by the "rejuvenation of participants". Many female athletes start playing sports professionally in their preschool years and end their athletic careers after the age of 20. The main reasons for ending a career are: marriage, the birth of a child, health problems, including injuries from sports, the desire to get an education. Women are more effective at combining sports and other activities, such as sports and studies, and are more comfortable with the end of their sporting careers than men. In general, women athletes are more diplomatic, open and expressive than men. The training sessions for female athletes should be easier than for men, and the training plan should be tailored to the physiological characteristics of the female body [14].
Women's sport is rapidly developing now, "experiencing a period of prosperity," the twenty-first century is going to be the time of new achievements in women's sport, as girls are gaining more and more new opportunities for the realisation of their sporting interests and potential. Now women are setting more and more records in various sports. However, researchers insist that the system of sports competi-
tions should be improved, conditions should be eased and new rules for competitions should be elaborated, and women's sports should be humanised in order to protect women and their health. [15]
No country today "can achieve serious results in the international arena" without developing women's sports sufficiently. The feminization of sport comes at the expense of various para-sports organisations, politicians, businessmen which are interested in the development of sports business. Now women's sport is under active development, exercise loads are constantly increasing, the sport is bringing in cutting-edge technologies while competition among female athletes is growing. With the rapid development of women's sport, the degree of understanding of the specifics of the female body and its reaction to extreme training and competition conditions is insufficient for the safe training of female athletes. Today, female athletes train and prepare for competitions with the methods and tools of male athletes. It is necessary to elaborate new training programs in accordance with the physiological features of the female body and intended particularly for women [16].
It is necessary to ensure no discrimination and equal pay in women's sports because despite the emergence of more women in various sports, management positions are mostly occupied by men [17].
Female athletes exhibit greater psychological masculinity, which indicates a mismatch of signs of the biological and social gender, and may lead to disruption sexual behavior in female athletes. However, this disorder is observed from the age of 4-5 years and is not the result of sports activities, but has a hereditary nature, since the mothers of female athletes also have deviations of sexual behavior, which are manifested in their choice of exclusively "male" professions [18].
Although sport was originally considered an exclusively male activity, there has been a significant feminization of sport at all levels, from amateur to Olympic [19].
Conclusions
In the research on the feminization of sport, we can distinguish the main aspects: historical, biological and social.
Research on the topic of the feminization of sport is ongoing, as women's sport has just entered a phase of active development. Many researchers address the history of women's sports, both globally and in individual countries and regions. It helps to get a fuller picture of the feminization of sport and the development of women's sport.
The greatest number of studies focus on the biological aspect of the feminization of sport and the development of women's sport. factors as well, such as the emancipation of women. Many studies have went behind issues of the formation of gender in female athletes and the relationship of sport, including high-performance sport, to problems of gender formation and gender identity disorders, often relating it to social
Some researchers investigate how sport affects female reproduction, fertility and pregnancy while other research camps point out the importance of designing special training programs tailored to women because their bodies are different from men's, and women need a different approach due to their physiological peculiarities. Researchers also note the necessity of health monitoring among female athletes to prevent injuries and health problems.
From a social point of view, many researchers note a certain backwardness of women's sports compared to men's, but they emphasise that women's sports are actively promoted now. The promotion of women's sports, according to researchers, is facilitated by the government's initiatives for educating people on women's sports, holding various sports competitions both exclusively for women and mixed-sex ones as well as building various infrastructure related to sports.
The overall impact of sports on a woman's life and how early sporting activities can affect a woman's professional development as a specialist in her profession are also researched.
Studies on the stereotyping of women's sports in society occupy a special place. Surveys are conducted on this topic, aiming at identifying the main stereotypes about women's sports. This is especially the case for sports that are considered traditionally masculine, such as wrestling or weightlifting. Researchers point out that social stereotypes and prejudices hinder the feminization of sport and the development of women's sport in general, and for the development of women's sport in the world and in individual countries, it is necessary to confront these stereotypes.
The problem of discrimination in sports is also receiving a lot of attention because, despite the development of the sports industry and the large number of women employed in it, the majority of executive positions are held by men. Researchers stress that we must eliminate discrimination in sports, unequal pay, etc. because this would inhibit the development of women's sports and the feminization of sports.
However, despite a large enough load of research on this subject, some aspects remain uncovered. Speaking about the history of women's sports, we can point out the almost complete absence of articles on the history of the development of women's sports and the feminization of sports in the USSR and Russia.
Also, while many biologically oriented studies address the psychological health of female athletes, there is little research examining the relationship between sports and psychological illnesses in women, such as eating disorders.
There is also little research on the relationship between certain sports and certain diseases or injuries in women in particular.
There is also no research that considers society's reaction to the active feminization of sport and the development of women's sport in recent years.
Prospects for research on this topic
The process of the feminization of sport is not complete yet; there are still kinds of sport that are inaccessible to women. The development of women's sports in the twenty-first century is still going on. The impact of sports on many aspects of women's health has not yet been thoroughly researched. Gender studies in sport and studies of gender formation in women in the context of professional sports are also a new aspect of science, but there is plenty of material for research, so this topic is very promising.
Another promising area of research concerns endurance and injury in female athletes, especially in sports that are highly traumatic.
Studies related to the psychological aspect of female athletes' health also have great potential. The human psyche remains an object of research and discussion for many scientists, and the relationship between the female psyche and sports is an overlooked aspect of science.
Studies regarding the further adaptation of women to life outside of sports after the end of their sporting careers for varying reasons will also be of great value. It is essential to analyse the psychological aspects of adaptation in marriage, family, professional sphere, not related to sports.
Another perspective is research related to the development of women's sports in individual countries and regions. With this research, it will be possible to track the progress of the feminization of sport and the pace of progress of women's sport in the world.
Also perspective will be the studies related to the systematisation of data on women's sports, on the physiological features of female athletes engaged
in various sports. In the future, this will help create methodological aids for the preparation of training and competition programs for female athletes with no harm to their health. This area is especially challenging because at the moment there are almost no methodological manuals for sports coaches of women's teams and those manuals that are used now stick to a system of training tailored for men, which can be detrimental to the health of female athletes because their body is different from that of men in its level of preparedness for extreme loads.
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Поступила в редакцию 12 апреля 2022 г.
Для цитирования: Ivanov, V. D. Feminization of sports / V. D. Ivanov, O. V. Marandykina // Физическая культура. Спорт. Туризм. Двигательная рекреация. — 2022. — Т. 7, № 4. — С. 61—68.
Information about the authors
Valentin Dmitrievich Ivanov — Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor, Associate Professor of the Department of Physical Education and Sports. Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia. ORCID ID: 00000002-2952-3222 Author ID: 229821 E-mail: vdy-55@mail.ru
Marandykina Oksana Viktorovna — Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor, Head of the Department of Physical Education. Moscow State Linguistic University. Moscow, Russia. ORCID ID: 0000-00029155-5014 Author ID: 943524 E-mail: o.marandykina@linguanet.ru
PHYSICAL CULTURE. SPORT. TOURISM. MOTOR RECREATION
2022, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 61—68.
Феминизация спорта
В. Д. Иванов1, О. В. Марандыкина2
Челябинский государственный университет, Челябинск, Россия 2Московский государственный лингвистический университет. Москва, Россия
В статье представлен обзор состояния проблемы по публикациям на елайбрари. Выявлены основные тенденции развития женского спорта, роль и место женщин в спортивных соревнованиях. Рассмотрены психологические и физиологические особенности женщин, занимающихся традиционно мужскими видами спорта. Отрасль женского спорта стремительно развивается, появляется все больше новых видов и типов спорта, в которых принимают участие женщины.
Ключевые слова: спорт и женщины, женщины в спорте, феминизация спорта.
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Сведения об авторах
Иванов Валентин Дмитриевич — кандидат педагогических наук, доцент, доцент кафедры физического воспитания и спорта. Челябинский государственный университет, Челябинск, Россия. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-29523222. AuthorID: 229821. E-mail: vdy-55@mail.ru
Марандыкина Оксана Викторовна — кандидат педагогических наук, доцент, заведующий кафедрой физического воспитания. Московский государственный лингвистический университет. Москва, Россия. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-9155-5014. AuthorID: 943524. E-mail: o.marandykina@linguanet.ru
Финансирование. Исследование не имело спонсорской поддержки. Конфликт интересов. Авторы заявляют об отсутствии конфликта интересов.
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