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DOI 10/14526/04 2017 263
WOMEN, SPORT AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
Darlene A. Kluka - D Phil, PhD Strategic Sport Solutions, Consultant E-mail: [email protected]
Anneliese Goslin - D Phil, MBA Emer. Professor Department Sport and Leisure Studies University of Pretoria, South Africa E-mail: [email protected]
Claudia Magaly Espinosa Mendez - MS, Fulltime Professor Benemerita Universidad Autonoma de Puebla, Mexico E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. The status of women in society has been at the center of conversations for decades. The concepts of women's empowerment, gender mainstreaming, gender equality, and gender equity have been identified as key drivers for promoting women's quality of life. The increased emphasis on the position of women during the last two decades has now been embedded in the broader context of global development and should not be regarded as an isolated effort. Rationales for supporting holistic women's empowerment in society have further been articulated in policy statements developed since 1995. The common line of argumentation in these policy documents is that it is through the process of social inclusion of women that systems are modified and institutions and societies can be transformed. It seems as if the importance of sport and physical activity to women's and girls' physical, mental, and emotional health is conceptually readily accepted. The challenge, however, is to monitor and sustain progress and to create incentives for gender mainstreaming, equality, and equity. This qualitative study aims to answer the research question "How do we become the change needed to facilitate and sustain lifelong participation of women in sport and physical activity? Ten main themes emergedfrom a qualitative content analysis of relevant literature namely legislative framework; formal education for girls and women; unpaid work; technological skills; female involvement in non-traditional areas; needs of girls and women in physical activity and sport; management and leadership opportunities for females; sport media; facilitating and promoting physical activity and sport throughout the lifespan and safety of participation. Keywords: women, physical activity, sport, gender equality
The status of women in society has been at the center of conversations for decades. The concepts of women's empowerment, gender mainstreaming, gender equality, and gender equity have been identified as key drivers for promoting women's quality of life (Malhortra, Schuler, and Boender, 2002). According to the World Bank (2016), the
Introduction
promotion of women's empowerment as a development goal is based on a dual argument: that social justice is an important aspect of human welfare and is intrinsically worth pursuing and that women's empowerment is a means to other ends (including access to equitable sport and physical activity opportunities). The increased emphasis on the position of women during the last two decades
has now been embedded in the broader context of global development and should not be regarded as an isolated effort.
Rationales for supporting holistic women's empowerment in society have further been articulated in policy statements developed from several high level conferences such as the Beijing platform for action in 1995 (spawning from the United Nations fourth world conference on women in Beijing), the Beijing + 5 declaration and resolution in 2000, the Cairo program of action (spawning from the Cairo conference on population and development in 1994), the millennium declaration and millennium development goals in 2000, and the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). The common line of argumentation in these policy documents is that it is through the process of social inclusion of women that systems are modified and institutions and societies can be transformed.
Parallel to the above to achieve gender equality in all sectors of society, involvement in physical activity and sport and creating genuine access and opportunities for girls and women has also become a widely shared goal on agendas of gender equality/equity. The global women's movement over the past half century has developed the perspective that females are enhanced as human beings when they develop their intellectual and physical abilities. This assertion of women's rights has served to solidify women's interest in sport and physical activity. A human rights-based understanding of sport and physical activity has been present since the founding of the United Nations. Within the established framework of human rights, several United Nations intergovernmental, international and national policy or normative frameworks on women, gender equality and sport have been developed. These policies, processes and frameworks have laid the foundation for the continuing efforts to achieve a just and equitable world of sport and physical activity for women.
It seems as if the importance of sport and physical activity to women's and girls' physical, mental, and emotional health is conceptually readily accepted. The challenge, however, is to monitor and sustain progress and to create incentives for gender mainstreaming, equality, and equity. Several critical elements have been identified as markers for sustained progress. These include, among others, initiatives of umbrella bodies campaigning for and maintaining gender equality and equity in sport, number of women in leadership positions in sport, media coverage of women's sport, as well as changes in policies.
Conceptual framework
According to the Women's Sports Foundation team of researchers (Staurowsky, DeSousa, Miller, Sabo, Shakib, Theberge, Veliz, Weaver, & Williams, 2015), the International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPESGW), and WomenSport International (WSI), a number of issues continue to persist globally:
Girls and women continue to be shortchanged. Females, regardless of age, race, or social class, are shortchanged in realizing the benefits of participation in physically challenging activities. Those, however, from lower economic backgrounds, those of color and those with disabilities suffer even greater negative health consequences because of less engagement in physical activity and less access to sport and physical fitness programs;
Girls and women are not always safe and secure in sport and physical activity settings. Safety and security are primary areas of concern for girls and women in sport and physical activity environments. There appear to be two areas of concern: (1) Venues such as parks, walking trails, and community gyms that are unsafe and lack security pose barriers to participation for females; and (2) Too many girls and women involved in sport and physical activity are subjected to sexual violence perpetrated by athletes, teammates, coaches, officials, administrators, and others.
Girls and women have greater risk for breast cancer. A review of large physical activity clinical trials demonstrated physical activity improves breast cancer survival rates (Fontein, De Glas, Duijm, Bastiaannet, Portielje, Van de Velde & Liefers, 2014). Based on the findings from 23 studies examining the effect of moderate and vigorous physical activity during adolescence on cancer risk, those who had the highest physical activity during adolescence and young adulthood were 20% less likely to get breast cancer later in life (Lagerros, Hsieh, & Hsieh, 2004) than those who did not participate in moderate to vigorous physical activity.
Bone health and osteoporosis for females become important pre-puberty and after menopause. Interestingly, a study of first-and fifth-grade boys and girls who participated in a school-based daily physical education program with at least 10 minutes of jumping or strength-training exercises of vigorous intensities found improvements in bone health for both genders, which were particularly notable for youth before puberty (Meyer, Romann, Zahner, Schindler, Puder, Kraenzlin, Rizzoli & Kriemler, 2011).
The risk of sexual victimization seems to be weakly related to sports participation and sexual victimization. In one study testing a "sport protection" hypothesis, female athletes were significantly less likely than non-athletes to be victimized during their late teenage and early adult years (Fasting, Brackenridge, Miller & Sabo, 2008). A second study, finding that female university-aged athletes reported higher incidences of rape and attempted rape, offered two possible explanations. Female athletes tend to drink more heavily and to socialize with male athletes, who have higher-than-average rates of sexual aggression, placing them at greater situational risk for sexual coercion (Brown, Spiller, Stiles & Kilgore, 2013). Suicide is a growing concern across the world. Females with major depression who participated in some physical activity were less likely to experience excessive guilt and to make a suicide plan in more developed nations
(McKercher, Patton, Schmidt, Venn, Dwyer & Sanderson, 2013). Female high school/college athletes were less likely to consider, plan, or attempt suicide (Brown & Blanton, 2002; Brown, Burton, & Rowan, 2007; Sabo, Miller, Melnick, Farrell & Barnes, 2005; Taliaferro, Rienzo, Miller, Pigg & Dodd, 2008a).
Girls and women of color appear to have realized health benefits differently by socioeconomic level and racial/ethnic group from their participation in sport and physical activity. It appears that the health of today's girls is threatened by inactivity. Physical activity plays a significant role to reduce health risks such as obesity, heart disease, osteoporosis, breast cancer, unintended pregnancy, and lack of self-esteem. Latinas are at greater risk than non-Latina girls for most of these health risks and more likely to be sedentary. Very little research has focused on the relationship between physical activity and health within the young Latina population (Sabo, Melnick and Vanfossen, 1989).
Participation in sport and physical activity throughout the lifespan seems to lessen. Despite an ever-expanding body of research evidence that supports the necessity for children to participate in physical activity regimens at moderate to vigorous levels for at least an hour a day to create a foundation for long-term health, children in North America are not engaging en masse in physical activity. According to the 2014 Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth (Katzmarzyk, 2014), just under 25% of youth, ages 12-15, were found to participate in physical activity at moderate to vigorous levels. As has been the case for decades, while there are shortfalls for both boys and girls, there remains a significant gender gap in participation that places girls at a disadvantage. Data from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children study reported by the World Health Organization in 2012 (Currie Zanotti, Morgan, Currie, de Looze, Roberts, Barnekow, (Eds). (2012). shows that 30% to 33% of boys between the ages of 11 and 15 engage in appropriate levels of physical activity, while girls' participation declined steadily from a
high of 24% at age 11 to 17% by age 15. This may vary when comparisons are made between countries and/or continents.
Cultural barriers appear to influence participation. In general, girls are still not afforded the degree of encouragement, access, or opportunity extended to boys to participate in sport and fitness activities. Impediments to access remain an ongoing concern, complicated by recent trends that run counter to promoting physical activity, fitness, and sport programs in schools and communities. With a de-emphasis on physical education internationally, and persistent inequalities in school-sport programs and community-recreation programs, girls and women continue to encounter structural barriers to participation (Cheslock, 2007, 2008; Cooky, 2009; Jarrett, 2013; NASPE/AMA, 2006; National Federation of State High School Associations, 2014; Sabo & Veliz, 2008; Sabo & Veliz, 2012; Slater, Nicholson, Chriqui, Turner & Chaloupka (2012;. Taber, Chriqui, Perna, Powell, Slater & Chaloupka, 2013; ICSSPE, 2014).
Athletic Performance is also suspect. While researchers continue to illustrate the importance of physical activity in the lives of girls and women, it is also critical to examine a collection of issues related to performance— overtraining, lack of proper conditioning, poor equipment, and unsafe facilities—that impact female athlete experiences and safety. {For example, female athletes' injuries to their heads and bodies [e.g., rips to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and concussions, lack of opportunities for females with disabilities, sexual violence as it occurs in sport settings, and challenges associated with media representation of girls and women in sport]}.
Women in sport leadership continue to be greatly underrepresented. Despite more female athletes participating in sport systems globally, obstacles persist for women who desire leadership positions. Career aspirations of women often collide with gender barriers that exist in many male-dominated sport organizations. Since the passage of Title IX in
the USA in 1972, for example, women remain in the minority in the sport workplace, with approximately 10% of all high school athletic directors, 20% of head coaches at the college level, and less than 20% of college athletic directors leading.
Methodology
In the context of afore going conceptual framework this qualitative study aims to answer the research question "How do we become the change needed to facilitate lifelong participation of women in sport and physical activity? Ten main themes emerged from a qualitative content analysis of relevant literature namely legislative framework; formal education for girls and women; unpaid work; technological skills; female involvement in non-traditional areas; needs of girls and women in physical activity and sport; management and leadership opportunities for females; sport media; facilitating and promoting physical activity and sport throughout the lifespan and safety of participation.
Discussion
Legislative framework
Over 150 countries have at least one law that treats women and men differently, and 63 have five or more. In general, Latin American countries average two. This produces institutional bias. Adverse social norms, persistent gender gaps in access to assets, and the failure to recognize and support the value of physical activity throughout the lifespan for both males and females undermine women's empowerment. The World Bank (2016) has offered a plan for accelerating progress. Goal 5 calls for an end in all forms of discrimination against women and girls for inclusive sustainable development. If it is difficult in larger society for women to own property, open bank accounts, begin businesses, and enter certain sectors in the workplace, this also affects the way in which females are viewed in terms of sport performance and leadership. This must be looked at and addressed.
Despite the continued existence of violence against women across the globe,
specific laws against gender-based violence are not universal. In 49 countries, there are no laws against domestic violence, in 45 there is no legislation to address sexual harassment, and 112 countries do not criminalize rape. In Timor-Leste, Central African Republic, there are laws penalizing domestic violence, sexual harassment, and rape that include the arena of sport, but 8 out of 10 women still justify these types of abuse. Although this appears to be progress on paper, social norms against wider gender equality reduce the potential for change.
Formal education for girls and
women
A woman's access to education and employment opportunities are often compromised by early marriage. Goal 5 of the World Bank's agenda looks to eliminate this practice. Early marriage appears to be widespread in parts of South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East and North Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean. For example, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic, and Mali legally prohibit child marriage. More than half of the girls are married by age 18 (World Bank, 2016).
Responsibility for unpaid work
Women invest more unpaid time delivering domestic care than men. Of the countries surveyed in the world (World Bank, 2016), women invest, on average, between 13% (Thailand) and 28% (Mexico) of their time doing unpaid work, while men invest between 3% (Japan) and 13% (Sweden). Because of this, time for women becomes more limited for active participation in sport and physical activity outside the home. This uneven division of responsibilities is correlated with gender difference in economic as well as sporting opportunities. Sharing home responsibilities more proportionately between women and men can facilitate opportunity for gender equity.
Technological skills
There appear to be widespread difference between men and women in access to basic technology in most parts of the world. Women, generally, are less likely to be internet
users regardless of their region or income. The difference in internet use can be as high as 20% (Turkey). Only 1/5 of countries with data have no evidence of a difference. This uneven distribution of technology skills provides men a huge advantage as coaches and administrators of sport. Going forward, it is critical to include these types of skills for improved performance in sport for girls and women.
Female participation in
nontraditional areas (e.g., sport and physical activity)?
Across the world, women are overrepresented in education and health; equally represented in social sciences, business and law; and underrepresented in engineering, manufacturing, construction, sciences and sport. This sharp divergence does not reflect the capacities or capabilities of women and men in different areas. Driving this segregation are gender biases at school and at home, limited exposure of girls to science and technology at an early age, and a lack of opportunities to enroll in such programs, including sport. Stereotypes that discourage girls from participating in science, technology and sport fields can also limit their options as adults. The World Bank's Goal 5 strives for the full participation of women at all levels of decision making in all sectors of a society, including sport. Across the globe, women occupy, on average, 23% of parliamentary-type seats, up from 12% in 1997. Women made up nearly 29% of seats in Latin America and the Caribbean. Only two countries had over 50% women in parliament: Rwanda (64%) and Bolivia (53%). Seven countries had no women in parliament: Yemen, Vanuatu, Tonga, Qatar, Palau, Micronesia, and Haiti.
Efforts to provide for the needs ofgirls in sport and physical activity.
Equity in sport and physical activity settings does not organically happen. It is moved forward with conscious efforts to consider the needs of girls and women. In general, with only 25% of girls getting the appropriate levels of physical activity to slow or discourage the development of chronic
disease and enhance quality of life, more work needs to be done in ensuring that programs meet the needs of girls and are developed in environments that foster participation in safe, secure, accessible, and affordable environments. The ability of girls and women to access sport, whether recreational or high performance, community-based or offered through a national sport governing body, is a fundamental right that has implications for an individual's dignity, happiness, health, personal freedom, and success. This right should be accorded unequivocally and without reservation to every girl and woman in the world regardless of ability, age, ethnicity, marital status, political persuasion, race, religious affiliation, sexual identity and orientation, and socioeconomic status. As a general trend over the span of decades, fewer financial resources have been made available for girls and women. Funding needs to match the need for more programs for girls and women.
Development of management and executive infrastructures that include women leaders.
Since the 1900s there have been calls for attention to be paid to the inclusion of women in key leadership and decision-making positions within sport and physical activity organizations and programs for two reasons: 1) to allow the best and most talented leaders to contribute their skills, and 2) to ensure that female perspectives were being included in decision making about physical activity and sport programs. All these years later, women continue to be on the periphery of decision making and leadership, particularly when it comes to sport and physical activity. This reflects a systemic pattern. As Staurowsky and Weight (2011, 2012) have documented, women are at times undervalued for their work in sport organizations through pay inequities, a hostile environment that hampers women from speaking up and holding institutions accountable, and a climate of retribution. No nation will achieve its myriad of health objectives with this type of dysfunctional infrastructure. The absence of female leaders
also results in fewer role models for young girls and boys, thereby neither envisioning themselves in such leadership positions.
Representation of women in sport
media.
The digital age offers unprecedented opportunities for girls and women to be celebrated for their participation and accomplishments. Yet, long-standing social stigmas born from attachments to gender boundaries and various conceptions of masculinity and femininity continue to create media-promulgated tensions that females must contend with in pursuing exercise, fitness, and sport activities for their health, well-being, and enjoyment, as well as the entertainment of others. Further, media has focused on beauty and sex appeal rather than athleticism and has undermined the ability of female athletes to be taken seriously (Daniels, 2009; Daniels & LaVoi, 2013). A revision of how athleticism is conceived and represented in mediated forms needs to be undertaken with consideration given to capturing the beauty, power, and accomplishments of female athletes fairly and accurately.
Promotion of sport and physical activity participation among girls and women throughout the lifespan.
Researchers have offered abundant evidence that there are numerous economic, educational, health, psychological, social, and work-related benefits that girls and women experience as a result of participating in sport and physical activity. While the benefits are clear, more research needs to be undertaken to better understand how to foster those opportunities, as well as to identify barriers to participation with the goal of developing strategies to enhance moving throughout the lifespan.
Safety and security of girls and women participating in sport and physical activity.
There is no clear picture of the frequency with which coaches become sexually involved with athletes (Brake, 2012). Those in sport leadership positions must make a commitment to safe and secure play
environments for girls and women, as well as boys and men. This will require an investment of resources, personnel, and programming that will educate athletes, parents, coaches and administrators on the creation and sustainability of safe spaces as well as athlete protection policies that include females in national sport governing bodies.
The World Bank (2016) has provided a vision that "...A sustainable path toward ending extreme poverty and promoting shared prosperity would also involve creating an inclusive society, not only in terms of economic welfare but also in terms of the voice and empowerment of all groups."
Conclusion
In summary, an inclusive society must have the institutions, structures, and processes that empower local communities, so they can hold their governments accountable. It also requires the participation of all groups in society, including traditionally marginalized groups, such as ethnic minorities and indigenous populations, in decision-making processes. This, obviously, includes girls and women in sport and sport leadership. A social contract that is based on the principle of better and equal opportunities for all citizens promotes social inclusion as well. A society that promotes equal opportunities, and is perceived by its citizens to be doing so, is more likely to be able to achieve the stability and cohesiveness needed to generate a sustainable development path. Girls and women must be a part of and on this path with boys and men.
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Parts of this article are adaptations of original works by The World Bank. Views and opinions expressed in the adaptation are the sole responsibility of the authors of the adaptation and are not endorsed by The World Bank.
Authors information
Darlene A. Kluka - D Phil, PhD, Strategic Sport Solutions, Consultant, e-mail: [email protected] Anneliese Goslin - D Phil, MBA, Emer. Professor Department Sport and Leisure Studies, University of Pretoria, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected]
Claudia Magaly Espinosa Mendez - MS, Fulltime Professor, Benemerita Universidad Autonoma de Puebla, Mexico, e-mail: [email protected]
For citations: Darlene A. Kluka, Anneliese Goslin, Claudia Magaly Espinosa Mendez. Women, sport and physical activity, The Russian Journal of Physical Education and Sport (Pedagogico-Phycological and Medico-Biological Problems of Physical Culture and Sports), 2017, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 33-41. DOI 10/14526/04_2017_263.
DOI 10/14526/04_2017_264
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGH SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHERS OF
EDUCATION IN GUILAN PROVINCE
Vahid Bakhshalipour -
Sama Technical and Vocational Training College, Islamic Azad University, Lahijan Branch,
Siyahkal, Iran. Bisotoon Azizi -
Department of Physical Education, Piranshahr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Piranshahr, Iran
Siavash Khodaparast Sareshkeh -
Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Guilan, Lahijan,Iran
E-mail: [email protected]
