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14
2022
ВЕСТНИК САНКТ-ПЕТЕРБУРГСКОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА ВОСТОКОВЕДЕНИЕ И АФРИКАНИСТИКА
Т. 14. Вып. 4
ЯЗЫКОЗНАНИЕ
UDC 811.22+811.43
Concepts of Charisma and Leadership in Bambara and Persian*
A. V. Davydov1, A. Tonoyan2'3
1 St Petersburg State University,
7-9, Universitetskaya nab., St Petersburg, 199034, Russian Federation
2 Yerevan State University,
1, ul. Aleka Manukyana, Erevan, 0025, Republic of Armenia
3 Institute of Oriental Studies of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia, 24/4, pr. Marshala Bagramyana, Erevan, 0019, Republic of Armenia
For citation: Davydov A. V., Tonoyan A. Concepts of Charisma and Leadership in Bambara and Persian. Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Asian and African Studies, 2022, vol. 14, issue 4, pp. 635647. https://doi.org/10.21638/spbu13.2022.404
The article deals with the concepts of charisma and leadership in two non-Western Islamic cultures from the linguistic perspective. The concepts of charisma and charismatic leadership have a long tradition of studying in sociology, political science and psychology since M.Weber. Charisma can be defined as compelling attractiveness or charm that can inspire devotion in others. Cognates of this Greek word are found in most European languages. The English word leader has been borrowed by many related and non-related languages. The questions we are addressing in this article are: How to translate charisma and leader into Bambara and Persian? What Bambara and Persian words can be translated with the English words charisma and leader? What is the origin of these words in Bambara and Persian? How these words function within the two languages and two cultures? To answer these questions we analyze a wide range of lexicographic and textual sources. We come to a conclusion, that in both languages the vocabularies consist of layers of different origin: Soninke and Manding in Bambara, Iranian and Altaic in Persian, Arabic in both languages. Despite long histories of Islamization both languages, though influenced by Arabic, have kept their core vocabularies in what concerns charisma and leadership.
Keywords: charisma, leadership, concept, Bambara, Manding, Mande, Persian, Iranian.
* The study was funded by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and Science Committee of the Republic of Armenia, projects no. 20-59-05006 and no. 20RF-189.
© St Petersburg State University, 2022
Preface
Charisma "is compelling attractiveness or charm that can inspire devotion in others" [1]. The English word charisma comes from latinized form of Greek x&piapa 'favor, divine gift'. Its cognates are found in most European languages, cf. German charisma, French charisme, Spanish carisma, Russian харизма, etc. The concepts of charisma and charismatic leadership have a long tradition of studying in sociology, political science and psychology since M. Weber [2]. The English leader, on the other hand, is of Old English origin: lœdere 'one who leads; a leader'. Cognates of this Old English word are found in many Germanic languages (cf. German Leiter, Dutch leider), whereas the Modern English leader has been borrowed by many related and non-related languages, cf. French leader, Spanish lider, Russian Vidkr, Japanese rïda.
V. V. Bocharov [3, p. 120] associates charisma with anomality as such, including physical. The present article is written within the framework of a larger project directed at analysis and deconstruction of what charisma and charismatic really are. The methods of this article are purely linguistical and consist of etymological analysis and (in the Bambara part) corpus analysis.
We deal with the concepts of charisma and (charismatic) leadership in two cultures which are both non-Western and Islamic. We do not suppose that comparing two cultures (even though they share at least two noticeable features) is enough. However, we hope that more data will follow.
The questions we are addressing in this article are: How to translate charisma and leader into Bambara and Persian? What Bambara and Persian words can be translated with the English words charisma and leader? What is the origin of these words in Bambara and Persian? How these words function within the two languages and two cultures?
Bambara
Bambara (also known as Bamana or Bamanankan) belongs to the Manding (or Man-dingo) branch of the Mande language family which is arguably a part of the hypothetical Niger-Congo phylum. Bambara is spoken natively by about 5 million people and, being the lingua franca of Mali, has about 10 million second language speakers. Bambaras were eventually converted to Islam in the 19th century, however, it is most likely that most of the Arabic loanwords in Bambara predate this time, since the process of the Islamization of the region was slow and gradual. Soninke (Soninke-bozo < Mande), the language of Ancient Ghana (Wagadu), had an essential mediating role in borrowing from Arabic into Manding in the earlier periods. As early as in 1920s M. Delafosse [41, i-iii] estimated the number of Arabic loanwords in Manding2 between 15 and 20 %. More recent dictionaries tend to record a lower percentage which is probably due to lack of documentation [5, p. 230-231].
The major lexicographic source used for Bambara is the electronic Bamadaba Dictionary [6], but also [7]. The source of phrasal examples is Corpus Bambara de Référence [8].
1 Published posthumously, see also [5].
2 I. e., in Bambara, Dyoula (Jula) and Malinké (Maninka).
Persian
Modern Persian vocabulary consists of two main parts: 1) words of Iranian origin, 2) loanwords, most of which are of Arabic origin. According to various calculations, about 65 % of the Modern Persian vocabulary is Arabic [9]. A large number of loans in Persian is borrowed also from Turkish-Mongolian. For the examination of charisma and leader concepts in Persian, it is also important to examine the vocabulary of Middle Persian, as the state language of Sasanid Empire spoken on the Iranian plateau before the Arab invasions. Some of the words evidenced for these concepts in Middle Persian have undergone various phonetic and semantic changes and have reached modern Persian. For the New and Modern Persian, this article used well-known dictionary of N. D. MacKenzie [10], and for Modern Persian vocabulary, several classical dictionaries, including Amid [11], Anand Raj [12], Borhan-e Qate' [13], A. A. Dehxoda [14] F. G. Steingass [15], J. Rubincik [16], etc.
Charisma
Charisma: The Bambara Lexicon
As expected, there is no close equivalent. The meaning of charisma is expressed by a range of lexemes and idiomatic expressions, most of which are polysemic and express meanings other than those in the focus of this article.
Daraja. The noun dâraja 'influence' occurs 101 time in the Corpus. The French equivalents in Bamadaba are célébrité, influence. It is a loan from Arabic daraja 'degree' and its cognates are attested in many languages of West Africa, e. g. Fulfulde daraja, Song-hay dârzà [17, p. 180]. In Bambara dâraja is semantically very close to dâwula. As Ma-hamadou Konta, one of the major authors of the Bambara language newspaper Kibaru 'News', points out: daraja = dawula koro ye kelen ye 'daraja = dawula, their meanings are the same'.
Another Bambara language author, one of the major authors of another Bambara newspaper Jekabaara 'Common work', explains what is dâraja in the Postface to his book of tales Basa ku n'a ka dingeda 'Lizard's tale and its hole'. According to him, dâraja is nothing else but a gift grom God, a gift which is not in everybody's destiny. This gift is to re-consile conflicting individuals and to bring peace and harmony:
Jamakulu bee n' a ka kolabenna don. N' a min desera focogopuman tigilamogo la, o barokene de laban ye jekeneya ye. Anw ta tun ye Cemogo kolabenna ye. Waati o waati, ni sosoli tun ye dansagon an nipogon ce baro sen fe, walima ni baroden fila ka faamuta fora pogon ko, Cemogo kolabenna de tun be kuma an nipogon ce. A tun be se kuma na haali. Hali n' ale kumana adamaden nigelen fe, o tun b' a dusu da. O daraja fana ye sonfen do ye Ala ye min di mogo dow ma. Jwo, ka se ka mogow ce fo k' u ben. Bee te se o la de. O daraja te bee dakan na3. 'For every crowd there is someone who can calm it down. If the ability to talk reasonably is lost, a conversation will end for nothing. Our someone was Tiemogo the Peacebringer. Every time we were quarreling to much or if two people could not come to an agreement, Tiemogo the Peacebringer would appear and talk to us. He was a very able talker. The most stubborn would calm down if he talked to them. This daraja is gift
3 Here and throughout the article examples taken from the Corpus Bambara de Référence do not have tonal notation.
which God gives to some people. To bring people together. This daraja is not in everybody's destiny.'
Dawula. As stated above the noun dawula is semantically close to daraja. It is a loan from Arabic dawla 'state; power', but it doesn't seem to have any 'state' component in its semantics. Cognates with similar meanings are attestend in many other languages of West Africa, cf. Fulfulde dawla 'reachness', Hausa daula 'power', Wolof doole 'power', etc. In the Corpus dawula occurs 537 times which makes it quite frequent as compared to daraja. It also occurs in proverbs:
Dawula ka ftsa tips ye. 'Dawula is better than truth'.
The following eloquent example of use of dawula is from a collection of Bam-bara rural texts, which French translation is published in [18]. It also contains nooro, a close Bambara concept which will be discussed is the next section, and jamatigi 'leader' which will be discussed later. Here dawula is looked upon as a direct result of nooro, i. e. a possession by jinns.
Adama ko : jinsw ka nooro tun bs a dennin no fs. Adama ko : ni Ala ye mogo o mogo dakops nin cogo la, ka i csps, o be a soro jinsw ka nooro be i fs, sitans be i fs, a tigi no fs jinsw ka ca kojugu, hali n' i y' a ta muso ye, n' i ye si soro, i bs ks fato ye. a no fs jinsw bs fa wuli i la, wa a mogo " fason " caman ts si soro . Adama ko : ni a den " fason "ye cs ye, e min y' a fa ye, n' i y' a ka ko cogo don, i bs a don morikalan la, ni a nana jinsbaaraw sidon, k' o ks, o tuma na a ni jinsw bs baara ks nipogon ye, a bs dawula soro, a bs togo soro, a bs ks jamatigi ye. 'Adama said: 'The nooro of the jinns is on his child'. Adama said: 'If God determines someone's fortune this way, and makes him or her beautiful, if the nooro of the jinns is on this person, if devil is in this person, and if the jinns are numerous, and if this person is female, she will lose her mind as she ages. The jinns pursue people of this kind, and not many of them get old. Adama said: 'If the child is male, and if his father recognizes his true kind, he gives him to be apprenticed by marabouts. And if he learns the ways of the jinns, he achieves dawula, he achieves fame, he becomes a jamatigi (leader)'.
Nooro. Nooro n. 'shining, glow; charisma' has been described in the previous section as jinn possession. Its ethymology is rather unclear. It is most likely a loan from Arabic nur 'light', cf. Man. nooro, Son. noorobepuye 'solar eclipse'. In the Corpus it occurs only fourteen times which makes it rather infrequent. It is noteworthy that the concept nooro may not be related to physical attractiveness as it is clearly set out in the following example:
Mogo caman cs ka pi nka nooro ts i la. 'Many people are good-looking, but do not have nooro'.
The following example, where nooro is described as inner glow emanated by a member of a Sufi brotherhood, can be regarded as an argument for Bambara nooro and Arabic nur being cognates:
San 1952 desanburukalo tile 17 don, den karamogo shski Fanta Madi Keyita ko, Kan-kan Sekuba, y' a ka talibedenw bss farapogon kan Kankan misiriba koro, k' a da u tulo kan k' aleps bs olu do ro kelen ka nooro tayeelen msnsnen na ka se fo sankaba la. 'On the 17th of December, 1952, the teacher sheikh Fanta Madi Keyita, also known as Sekuba of Kankan, called all of his disciples into the Big Mosque of Kankan. He told them that he sees that one of them is radiating a glow which goes up to the sky'.
Sara. The noun sara 'charm, beauty' is also most likely of Arabic origin, cf. Arabic sahara 'to charm', sahir, sahhar 'magician', also cf. Migama setrro 'to charm, to poison'. In Bambara the term is usually used in relation to women and young men.
Muso ka csps n' a ka sara ma kun donsoks la. A ye muso furu o yoro bss. Hali a m' a sara a somogow la. 'The hunter was so fascinated by sara of this woman that he married her immediately. He didn't even pay a visit to her relatives'.
(It is noteworthy that the hunter would later find out that his wife was a jinn).
A ka ksns i ko den, sara b' a la, w' a donsen ka pi. 'He is fresh like a child, he has charm, his sense of rhythm is good'.
tyaara. tyaara adj. 'eloquent, n. 'outstanding griot' is most likely a borrowing from Son. yaara 'outstanding griot'. The word is quite rarely used, in the Corpus there are 19 occurences of it. The word is mostly used to describe griots, i. e. the members of the professional caste of musicians and storytellers, but also other types of artisans and slaves:
Du Muke Tarawele ka jonks bsyen, ko Ala Dungo, jon yaara don, a da jala ka gslsn, a ts malo mogo ma, a y' i sara a jatigiks la'. 'A slave of Du Muke Tarawele was there, his name was Ala Dungo, he was an eloquent slave, an unrepentant liar, a shameless one. That was he who appealed to the landlord'.
Uselen, numumuso yaaraw ko a ma... 'When they [the ruler and his entourage] arrived, the eloquent female potters told him [the ruler]'.
The type of situation in the both examples above can be described as 'talking up'. Here, an eloquent representative of a "lower" caste addresses the one in power, wins the verbal contest and achieves his or her goals.
Barika. Addressing a topic of charisma in an Islamic culture and in a language profoundly influenced by Arabic, another Islamic concept cannot but come into mind — that of God's blessing, or baraka in Arabic. According to Islam, God may implant an emanation of baraka in the person of his prophets and saints [19]. Predictably, a borrowed form of this Arabic word — barika — is found in Bambara and is very frequent with 256 occurrences in the Corpus. The Corpus also contains 30 occurrences of barikama 'strong', an adjective derived from barika.
The initial meaning of '[God's] blessing' is preserved in religious context, but the overall semantics of barika has significantly shifted towards 'force' in general and even 'physical strength'. Barika bs a la (literally, 'the barika is on him') means 'he is strong' or 'he is tough'.
ftama. Bamadaba [6] definespama, a Bambara autochtone (and most likely pre-Is-lamic) concept, as a harmful occult force which may be contained by certain living and dead creatrues, such as large trees, certain animals, dead by suicide or by drowning, struck by lightning and elderly people. It may also be used to indicate deceases caused by the eponymous occult force (e. g., skin deceases, seizures). The concept ofpama is typologi-cally close to Melanesian and Polynesian mana first described by R. N. Codrington [20], Chinese qi, Sanskrit prana or even to Arabic baraka discussed in the previous section.
The definition ofpama in Bamadaba misses another important entity which, according to Bambara beliefs, may contain pama—speech. As a Bambara proverb states, ftama bs kuma la 'There is pama in the speech' [21, p. 37]. Those who are able to manipulate this force within the speech are highly valued by the society. Having pama implies having authority and influence, but also having more responsibility and being in more danger of which pama is the source. Using the language professionally is not a privilege of any single cast, although jeliw 'griots' are traditionally considered to be masters of speech. Numuw 'male smiths/woodworkers and female potters' are also reputed to be capable speakers. The Bambara distinguish between at least three types of power language. Kilisi 'incan-
tation' is a form of ritualized speech which can harm or benefit the target [21, p. 12], cf. also [6]. These incantations are often used together with poisonous substances korots (or koroti). Dtbikan 'the language of darkness' is used by diviners and is believed to transmit messages from unseen world, i. e., from dibi 'darkness' [21, p. 82], dibi being one of the fetiches of the Komo initiation society which is forbidden for griots. As another Bambara proverbs puts it, Ko rotigslikan ts jeli don Ko mo na ko sysssogo ka di 'A griot does not enter Ko mo although (s)he knows that chicken meat is delicious'. Finally, jelikan 'the griot language' is a special language used only by griots during some types of performances. Both dibikan and jelikan are composed of obscure noun phrases and are structurally similar.
Danbe, makama, mankutu, sawura, togo. In this section we will briefly discuss some other candidates to continue the list. The following words are also used in certain context to describe charismatic properties of people, although charisma is not in the center of their semantics. Most of them are of Arabic origin.
Danbe n. is 'dignity' or 'honour', but also 'good reputation'. The is a folk etymology which analyses danbe as dan 'limit' + affirmative copula bs, i. e. as 'There is a limit. This is indeed a weak etymology, linguistically speaking, but is shows that having honour is understood within the culture as having limits.
Makama n. (also makaama, makanma, makaba) is a borrowing from Arabic maqam 'position'. The word is quite rare and 17 occurenses in the Corpus. The form makaama is less adapted phonetically having conserved the long vowel. Two other forms — makanma and makaba — have been reinterpreted as having suffixes: *makan + ma (adjective suffix), *maka + ba (augmentative suffix).
Mankutu (also mangutu, mankutun) n. 'quality', v. 'to glorify'; in grammar, it is also a neologism 'adjective'. It is most likely a borrowing from Arabic manqut '[a letter] with dots', i.e, a letter which qualities have been defined by upper or lower diacritical dots. Mankutu is part of such phraseological units as ka mankutu tips 'to spoil reputation' and ka mankutu bo 'to prove oneself'.
Sawura (also sabura) n. 'image', is a borrowing from Arabic sura 'picture' or, more likely, its plural form suwar.
Togo n. 'name' is used as a part of an such idioms as ka togo soro 'to find name, i. e., 'to gain reputation and influence', and a togo bora, literally, 'his name came out', i. e., 'he became prominent, famous'.
Charisma: The Persian Lexicon
Among the few words used for the term 'charisma' in Modern Persian (karizma, jadabbiyyat, nufud, farr, farrah, farrahmandi), the most notable in terms of historical context, phonetic and semantic development are the forms farr and farrah, which have been studied by many well-known specialists in Iranian linguistics, including H. Hubschmann [22], G. Gnoli [23; 24], W. Lentz [25], H. Bailey [26], J. Duchesne-Guillemin [27], etc.
Farr and farrah, which both in NP are evidenced by 'refulgence, grandeur, magnitude, pomposity, authority' [13, s.v. 'farr'], 'beauty, brilliancy, luster, magnificence, glory, power, dignity' [15, s.vv. 'farr', 'farrah'], 'shine, splendor, pomp, pageantry' [16, s.v. 'farr'] and other meanings, are derived from the OP *farnah(/-a) [22, p. 83]. According to W. Lentz [25, p. 288], OP farnah-, which continued in Middle Persian as farr, farrah and xwarrah 'fortune, glory, spendour' [10, p. 96], is a Median loanword in OP.
J. Duchesne-Guillemin [27] connected the etymology of the word with the Proto-Ira-nian *xwara-, which is widely used in Iranian languages for the concept of 'sun', to which, according to scholar, is joined by the neuter nominal suffix -nah:
In some interpretations 'glory' and 'shine,' related with 'sun', were considered the initial meanings of the term farr(ah), xvaranah. Semantic changes and etymologically secondary meanings connected to fortune (good), and majesty (kingly) have been discussed by H. W. Bailey [26].
In Avestan texts belonging to the Ancient Iranian Period farr(ah) and xvaranah have the meaning 'magic force or power of luminous and fiery nature', while in MP and NP they are more often used to denote 'fortune (good)', and in Armenian exists also p'ark', which is an Iranian loanword in the sense of 'glory. In Modern Persian, the word 'fortune' is used in a number of contexts, such as farr t sah 'fortune of the king', farr i yazdan 'the fortune-bestowing force of God', farr u aurang 'fortune and high rank', farr u jah 'fortune and position', farr u burz 'fortune and position' [26, p. 62].
If the etymology proposed by J. Duchesne-Guillemin [27], according to which the meaning of the word is related to the concepts of 'sun', 'shine', is correct, then the semantic development of the word may have the following form:
sun > power (divine)> fortune (good)> glory > charisma.
The term farrahmandt, etymologically related to farrah, used for the term 'charisma' in Modern Persian scientific literature, and its first component, farrahmand (<MP xwaro-mand 'wealty' [10, p. 96]), means 'majestic, solemn' in Modern Persian (16, s.v. 'farrah-mand').
Leader
Leader: The Bambara Lexicon
flemogo. fls.mogo front.person 'leader' is the most obvious Bambara equivalent of English leader. The word is extremely frequent with 14,418 occurences in the Corpus, inlcuding the formpsmogoya 'leadership' which is derived frompsmogo with the abstract nouns suffix -ya. A frequent variant ofpsmogo ispsmaa. The first form,psmogo, belongs to so-called Standard Bambara, a lingua franca based on the dialect of the capital city of Bamako which is strongly influenced by a closely related Manding language, Maninka. The second form,psmaa, may be attributed to the dialect of Segu, the capital of the preco-lonial Bambara state. This form is perceived as more archaic. The difference between two forms, therefore, is not just dialectal but also stylistic.
The plain meaning ofpsmogo/psmaa can be illustrated by the following Bambara proverb: Kami bs a psmogo toon fils 'The guinea fowl looks at the back of the neck of the one [running] before it'. In modern political discoursepssmogo/pssmaa is part of such well-established terms as jamana psmogo/ps maa 'national leader' and minisiripsmogo 'prime minister'.
-tigi. The noun tigi 'owner, author' can be regarded as a suffixoid, or a wordfinal segment that has characteristics of both free and bound morpheme. In this quality it very productive and is part of such terms as jama.tigi crowd.owner 'leader, se.tigi power.owner 'influential person, wealthy person', kuma.tigi speech.owner 'mediator, host', kun.tigi head. owner 'head, chief', jamana kuntigi 'president'.
Belebele. Belebele is a very frequent mopheme with 1527 occurences in the corpus. It usually functions as an adjective meaning 'big; obese; important'. As a noun meaning 'an important thing' it is much less frequent. Even less frequently it can be used in relation to people meaning 'an important figure' or 'a traditional leader'.
Mogoba. Mogoba (also maa.ba) is composed of mogo 'person' and the augmentative suffix -ba. It occurs on the Corpus 88 times. It is semantically very close to belebele, meaning 'an important figure' or 'leader'.
tyana. tyana 'hero, champion' has 2424 occurences in the Corpus and is used in a vast variety of contexts. It may refer to traditional epic heroes, for instance, such as Sundiata, the legendary founder of the Empire of Mali, but also to champions in local rural contests and in sports (e. g., ntolatan yana 'football champion') and to frond-rank workers or leaders of manufacture (e. g. sssnsks yana 'leading farmer').
Sanpiyon, sodanso, waane, kalamene. These word are less frequent and more doubtful candidates to continue the list.
Sanpiyon 'champion' if a borrowing from French champion, which can be occasionally used instead of yana in context of sports.
So.dan.so horse.stop.horse 'valiant horseman, champion' can also be used as a synonym of yana, e. g.:
An bs bi min na koorissns yiriwara Mali kono fo ka Mali koorissnsnaw ks farafinna sodansowye. 'As of today the cultivation of cotton developed so much in Mali, that Malian cotton cultivators became the champions of Africa'.
This usage may be explained by an extremely high prestige of horses as warfare and as property in West Africa.
Waans 'expert' (cf. Son. waane 'pretentious', cf. also Man. wana 'expert, sage') may refer mostly to an experienced gambler.
Kalamsns is composed of kala 'straw' and mssns 'to set fire'. Its plain meaning is 'torch', but it may also mean 'torchbearer', and, in figurative meaning, 'leader'. In the early 1990s there existed in Mali a Bambara language newspaper called Kalamsns.
Leader: The Persian Lexicon
There are approximately thirty lexeme for the concept of leader in Modern Persian, among which, in addition to the original Iranian words, there are borrowings from Turkish and Arabic. For the same concept, the words in Middle Persian are incomparably less, only 4 (parwanag, pesar, pesobay and salar).
New Persian. Although most of the words used for the term leader in Modern Persian are Arabic and Altaic borrowings, but there are also a number of words of Iranian origin, some of which are Middle Persian archeologisms with corresponding phonetic developments, and the another part-lexical neologisms, new semantic developments and compound word-formations, in general.
Arabic loanswords. Since one of the purposes of this article is to discuss the words of Iranian origin used in Persian for the concept of leader, we will confine ourselves here to a simple list of Arabic borrowings. A large number of Arabic borrowings contain Islamic religious terms, which are largely attested in the Quran and in the Sufi literature of the later period. Some of these words later became widely used in non-religious secular contexts as well. Among the words of Arabic origin used in Persian for the concept of leader are:
qodve, moqtada 'leader, guide, a man who has a great influence' [11, s.v. 'moqtada']4, za'im 'head, chieftain, tribe leader' [11, s.v. 'za'Im'], emam5 'religious leader' [16, s.v. 'emam']6, hadi 'leader, chief, manager' [16, s.v. 'hadI']7, amir 'commander, ruler, ader' [11, s.v. 'amIr'], seyx 'tribal chief, chieftain, big boss, leader' [11; 16, s.v. 'seyx'], mursid 'teacher, mentor, superior, spiritual guide' [11, s.v. 'morsed']8, vali 'guardian, supervisor, ruler, friend' [16, s.v. 'vall']9, maxdum 'lord, governor, leader, a person whom serve' [11, s.v. 'maxdum'], 'amid 'chieftain, commander' [32, s.v. 'amid], ra'is 'head, superior, boss, chairman, chief' [11, s.v. 'ra'is'], qayed 'leader, guide, commander, commandant' [32, s.v. 'qayed'], naqib 'big man, supervisor, chieftain, tribe leader' [11, s.v. 'naqib'] etc.
Altaic Loanwords. In comparison to a large number of Arabic loanwords, Turkish borrowings, denoting 'leader', are incomparably less. A lexeme among the Turkish loans, i. e. aqa is of great interest.
Aqa 'caballero, esquire, monsieur, sir' [32; 16, s.v. 'aqa'], which apart from being used by the 'landowner, master'10, 'great', 'older brother'11 [32, s.v. 'aqa'], 'lord'12 meanings is an ordinary polite way to turn to men, i. e. aqa-ye Mohammadt 'mistr Mohammadi', aqa-ye Rouhani 'mistr Rouhani' etc., has usage as so called folk-epithet of the current supreme leader of Iran and means 'leader, chief, e. g. aqa goftand or aqa farmudand 'The supreme leader said', "All Xamenei said' [33]. Moreover, the preliminary results of our field researches in Iran show that a direct pronunciation of the name of a current supreme leader, i. e. 'All Xamenei is almost existent neither in the speech of simple folk nor of officials. It
4 Cf. also qiyadat 'leadership' ('Amid, s.vv.), which is etimologically identical with qodve and moqtada.
5 The word imam denotes a person who stands or walks "in front" (cf. Modern Persian pisrow and pisgam in the same meaning). According Petrushevskiy, the term imam has gradually acquired a threefold meaning: 1) among the Sunnis, the imam is the head of the Muslim community and the Muslim state, the supreme bearer of spiritual and secular power; in this sense, the imam is the same as the caliph; the imam-caliph was designated by the term great imam (al-imam al-kabir), 2) among the Shiites, the imam is hereditary, from the family of Muhammad and his son-in-law 'Ali, the husband of his daughter Fatima, the head of the Muslim community and the Muslim state, to which the dignity of the imam is not assigned by people , but by divine command, 3) the imam of the mosque — the primate at the public prayer; this is a small imam (al-imam al-sayir). The imams of the cathedral mosques (Arab-Persian imam jum'a — 'Friday imam') are appointed from among the faqihs who have a special spiritual education, while the imams of district and village mosques can have even most elementary spiritual education [28, p. 94].
6 Cf. also the term imama denoting the 'supreme leadership' institution of the Muslim community after the death of the Prophet [29].
7 Cf. hedayat 'management, direction, guidance' and hedayatgar 'director, manager, ruler' from the same Arabic root.
8 Literally means "one who gives right guidance'. From the same root are derived also rusd and irsad in Arabic. In Sufi mystical parlance mursid is the spiritual director and initiator into the order (tarika) of the novice or murid, who is following the Sufi path. Synonyms are baba, pir and saykh. As part of the guidance for the postulant, the mursid bestows various tokens of spiritual grace and attainment upon the seeker [30].
9 One of the most common official epithets of 'Ali Xamenei current supreme leader of Iran is vali-ye faqih 'the ruling jurist,, which is directly related to the theocratical concept of Iranian state known as velayat-e faqih. For details see [31]. The word vali is also found in other compounds in Persian, e. g. valiahd 'crown prince, dauphin, successor' [32, s.v. 'vali'ahd'], vali'asr, lit. 'the guardian of the time' [14, s.v. 'vali'asr'], one of epithets of Mahdi, who is an eschatological messianic figure in Shi'a Islam.
10 Cf. xvaja(/e) in Classical and Modern Persian [35; 16, s.v. 'xvaja'].
11 Cf. also kaka 'older brother' in Modern Persian [16, s.v. 'kaka'] and kak 'older brother in Kurdish' [35, s.v. 'kak'].
12 The use of aqa in the sense of "lord" in a compound form aqa-dar is especially interesting. In the Gilan province of Iran there are sacred trees of a ritual significance, called aqa-dar 'lord tree', as well as bozorgvar 'eminent, or pir 'spiritual master' [36].
seems it is taboo. Simple folk of towns and villages use the lexeme aqa instead of mentioning 'All Xamanei's name directly, while officials, experts and the elite, in general, prefer the high style, using the words such as rahbar 'leader', rahbar-e mo'azzam 'supreme leader, rahbar-e enqelab 'leader of the revolution', maqam-e mo'azzam-e rahbari 'supreme leader, rarely also hadrat-e aqa 'excellence leader' etc.
Other lexemes of Altaic origin also have been used in NP to refer to the concept of 'leader', e. g. atabak (lit. father lord) 'local ruler, headman' [11, s.v. 'atabak'], ilbig (lit. 'lord of tribe') 'chieftain, tribe leader' [14, s.v. 'llbag'], yabyu13 'king, leader' [11, s.v. 'yabyu'], basi 'commander, leader of group' from Turkish bas 'head, leader' [34, p. 375-376], xan 'leader' [11; 15, s.v. 'xan'], xaqan 'chieftain, tribe leader' [11; 15, s.v. 'xaqan'] etc.
Words of Iranian origin. The etymology of the lexemes of Iranian origin used for the concept of leader in Modern Persian (pisva, pisro, rahbar, rahnama, sar, sarkarda, sarvar, sardar, xvaja, mehtar, bozorg etc.) shows that they are mainly based on the following components:
pis 'ahead, fore, forward, front, onward', e. g. pisva (see above MP pesobay), pisro (lit. going forward, pis+ro (present stem of raftan 'to go').
rah 'road, way', e. g. rahbar (lit. leading the way, rah+bar (present stem of bordan 'to carry, to convey, to gain, to lead'), rahnama (lit. showing the way, rah+nama (present stem of namudan 'to show, to look').
sar 'head, skull', e. g. sar (lit. head, cf. Arab. ras 'leader', Turk. bas 'leader', Russ. glava 'leader', Eng. head 'leader' etc.), sarvar (lit. sar + noun suffix var, cf. honarvar ' artificer, artist, senavar 'swimmer', pisavar 'artisan, craftsman ', didvar 'observer, looker-on', tajvar 'wearing a crown, crowned, worthy of a crown, guyesvar 'native speaker, informant' etc.), sardar (lit. sar+ noun suffix dar (present stem of dastan 'to own, to have'), cf. sahrdar 'mayor', ostandar 'governor, eparch', melkdar 'landlord', zamindar 'landowner' etc.), sarkarda (lit. sar+karda(?)14.
Usage words for the concept 'big, great', e. g. mehtar (meh 'big, great' + comparative suffix -tar), bozorg (< OI *vazrka-) etc.
Conclusions
In this article we have discussed Bambara and Persian vocabularies dealing with the concepts of charisma and leadership. In both languages these vocabularies consist of layers of different origin: Soninke and Manding in Bambara, Iranian and Altaic in Persian, Arabic in both languages. Despite long histories of Islamization both languages, though influenced by Arabic, have kept their core vocabularies in what concerns charisma and leadership.
13 Although Helmut Humbach [37, p. 24-28] and N. Sims-Williams [38, p. 255] consider that yabyu has passed to Turkish from the Chinese xihou, interpretting it as "allied prince", H. W. Bailey suggests two different Iranian etymologies, reconstructing the forms *yam-uka- 'leader' [39, p. 136] and *yavuka-"troop-leader" [40, p. 32] In addition, Bactrian form iabgo is also in the Kushan period and there is also an assumption, that the title first has been brought to the Iranian world by the Kushans (see for details [41]).
14 Considering the phonetic form of the second component, it can be assumed that karda may be the past stem of the verb kardan 'to do, but given the widespread use and the abundant evidence of sarkarda in Turkic-Mongolian languages, its Altaic origin is not excluded.
Abreviations
OP — Old Persian NP — New Persian Man. — Maninka MP — Middle Persian Av. — Avestan language Prth. — Parthian language Son. — Soninke s.v. — sub verbo s.vv. — sub verbis
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Received: May 20, 2022 Accepted: September 15, 2022
Authors' information:
Artem V. Davydov — PhD in Philology; a.davydov@spbu.ru
Artyom Tonoyan — PhD in Philology; artyom.tonoyan@ysu.am
Концепты харизмы и лидерства в бамбара и персидском*
А. В.Давыдов1, А. Тоноян2'3
1 Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет,
Российская Федерация, 199034, Санкт-Петербург, Университетская наб., 7-9
2 Ереванский государственный университет, Республика Армения, 0025, Ереван, ул. Алека Манукяна, 1
3 Институт востоковедения Национальной академии наук Республики Армения, Республика Армения, 0019, Ереван, пр. Маршала Баграмяна, 24/4
Для цитирования: Davydov A. V., Tonoyan A. Concepts of Charisma and Leadership in Bambara
and Persian // Вестник Санкт-Петербургского университета. Востоковедение и африканистика.
2022. Т. 14. Вып. 4. С. 635-647. https://doi.org/10.21638/spbu13.2022.404
С лингвистической точки зрения рассматриваются понятия харизмы и лидерства в двух незападных исламизированных культурах. Понятия харизмы и харизматического лидерства имеют давнюю традицию изучения в социологии, политологии и психологии со времен М. Вебера. Харизму можно определить как неотразимую привлекательность или обаяние, которые способны взывать к сердцам других людей. Когнаты этого греческого по происхождению слова встречаются в большинстве европейских языков. Английское по происхождению слово leader также было заимствовано множеством родственных и неродственных языков. Вопросы, которые рассматриваются в статье: как перевести слова «харизма» и «лидер» на бамбара и персидский? Какие слова языков персидского и бамбара можно перевести русскими словами «харизма» и «лидер»? Каково происхождение этих слов в бамбара и персидском? Как они функционируют в двух языках и культурах? Чтобы ответить на эти вопросы, авторы обращаются к широкому кругу лексикографических и текстовых источников. В той части статьи, которая относится к материалу языка бамбара, используются данные электронного корпуса языка бамбара и корпусный метод исследования. Авторы приходят к выводу, что соответствующие лексиконы в обоих языках состоят из пластов разного происхождения: сонинкского и мандингского в бамбара, иранского и алтайского в персидском и арабского в обоих языках. Несмотря на долгую историю исламизации, оба языка, испытав сильное влияние арабского, сохранили свою основную лексику в том, что касается выражения понятий «харизма» и «лидерство».
Ключевые слова: харизма, лидер, концепт, манде, манден, бамбара, бамана, персидский, иранские языки.
Статья поступила в редакцию 20 мая 2022 г., рекомендована к печати 15 сентября 2022 г.
Контактная информация:
Давыдов Артем Витальевич — канд. филол. наук; a.davydov@spbu.ru Тоноян Артем — канд. филол. наук; artyom.tonoyan@ysu.am
* Исследование выполнено при финансовой поддержке РФФИ (проект 20-59-05006) и Комитета по науке Республики Армения (проект 20ЯБ-189) в рамках совместной научной программы.
