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2. http://www.acc.com/legalresources/quickcounsel/elic_rjs.cfm, Accessed on December 4, 2016.
3. http://www.blakes.com/pdf/EnvLawOntCan.pdf, Accessed on November 13, 2016.
4. http://www.tc2.ca/pdf/H3_Environmental.pdf, Accessed on December 23, 2011.
URBANIZATION PROBLEMS IN KINGSTON
Natalie Davis
Green Island high school Jamaica, Kingstone
Abstract: Urbanization is the process by which cities and towns develop and grow into larger areas. It includes the movement of people from rural to urban areas as well as movements among towns and cities. As will now be discussed, this process is a popular phenomenon that has not only dominated Jamaica, but other developing and more developed countries of the world.
Key words: urbanization, rural and urban areas.
Empirical data suggests that urbanization has been on the rise in the small island territory of Jamaica. In Jamaica, Kingston has been identified as the city with the largest urban concentration. Such high population growth rates mean increased reliance on the natural environment, particularly in the urban area where density is most significant.
Even though cities are considered as the 'engines' of economic development, failure to manage the impacts of rapid urbanization provides a threat to the health of human beings, as well as environmental quality and urban productivity.
According to Davis-Mattis [3], approximately two thirds of Jamaica's population live in coastal towns and cities. High and rapid levels of urbanization have led to major problems such as traffic congestion resulting from poor infrastructure, contributing to environmental pollution and urban decay. Moreover, inadequate social services and poor housing are consequences of overpopulation and high population densities, often leading to the proliferation of squatters in major cities.
This scenario is often times intensified when high housing prices force people who are in the lower income strata away from the formal land market and towards illegal squatter settlements frequently situated in forbidden, environmentally sensitive areas; usually state-owned, yet seldom monitored. Bernstein [1] argues that compared to other urbanized lands, these areas are usually most vulnerable to natural and anthropogenic hazards. Research has shown that deforestation for residential purposes along with 'slash and burn' farming by agricultural squatters in watershed areas have led to the degradation of 17 out of the 26 existing watersheds in the island; eventually leading to a reduction in fresh water resources.
This can also be attributed to poor land management practices and inadequate institutional arrangements by the state. Tinidigarukayo [5] adds that rapid urban growth along with the inadequate provision of housing facilities has resulted in the increasing presence of informal settlements along gullies and on river banks in Jamaica. Clarke [2] describes an unsightly 'rash of huts' appearing along the flanks of the lower part of the Sandy Gully - one of the main drainage systems implemented in the Kingston Metropolitan Area (K.M.A.). Squatters are then faced with the challenge of proper garbage and sewage disposal as the majority of these shacks do not have access to proper disposal facilities. This then leads to waste being disposed in gullies or nearby water channels, as this method would seem to be a feasible way of getting rid
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of garbage, since it virtually 'disappears' downstream. However, this causes major problems for the environment as polluted drains increase the risk of flooding and also pollutes coastal waters.
The seas and oceans are under increasing pressure from pollution. Much of this pollution comes from urban centres, and it creates environmental problems which threaten the viability of the cities themselves. Drakakis-Smith [4] posited that "The consequence of so much poverty is a large and increasing number of urban residents who simply seek to survive as best they can, seemingly oblivious of the cost to the environment." The World Bank also noted that the poor who make up 30-60% of urban population in developing countries are the ones who are most affected by degradation of the physical environment; much of which is also caused by them. It has been said, therefore, that the poor are both victims and agents of environmental degradation.
On the other hand, various upper class residential developments contribute just as much to degradation of natural resources in the island. Due to the scarcity of land on a whole in the urban areas of Caribbean SIDS - the K.M.A. being no exception; many affluent persons choose to build their houses on steep slopes situated on the outskirts of the city. For instance the Long Mountain Range located to the north-east of the CBD, is home to a watershed that contributes to the recharge of four of its wells; a host of biological species and indigenous animals such as the coney and also a breeding site for migratory birds such as the Black Throated Warbler. It is for these and other reasons why Jamaica has been placed fifth among the islands of the world due to the unique bio-diversity of the country.
Bernstein [1] notes that: "As urbanization occurs, land development exerts pressure on surrounding ecosystems. The negative impacts of such development may include the loss or destruction of wetlands and wildlands (together with their rich genetic diversity) and degradation of coastal zones." The destruction of ecologically important wetlands for urban development has potentially negative effects on the environment. These natural defense systems which account for about 6% of the global land area are the transitional areas between terrestrial and aquatic environments, and are one of the world's most productive natural ecosystems. Wetlands are beneficial in that they provide protection from hurricanes and storm surges, pollution control, wildlife habitat, increase ground-water recharge and shoreline stabilization. Notwithstanding the vast benefits of wetlands, they are still the most threatened among environmental resources. In developing countries, wetlands have been undergoing rapid conversion into urban residential and industrial use over the last 30 years [1]
Wetland ecosystems come under the most threat from land-use and land reclamation. The land reclamation because of urban development has been taking place in the island over an extended time period. Such activities increase coastal vulnerability of the already vulnerable landmasses of SIDS to hurricanes and storm surges, when mangroves which act as shock absorbers for the land are destroyed.
As put forward by Bernstein [1], "For cities undergoing rapid expansion... one of the most important challenges is to achieve a proper balance between urban development and environmental protection".
In Kingston where immigration rates persist, residential and industrial developments continue to take a toll on the fragile ecosystem thus hindering its conservation for future generations. In this city which is the primary generator of economic growth for the country, effective urban land management is therefore needed to balance environmental protection and economic development, while meeting basic housing needs for the poor so as to prevent them living on marginal lands.
Essentially, this highlights the need to strive for and achieve sustainable development which relates to positive socio-economic change that does not undermine the ecological and social systems on which a society is dependent. From this, the term 'sustainable urbanization' has been derived which is a term used by Drakakis-Smith [4] to describe the well-balanced relationship between the social, economic and environmental agents in society, so as to accomplish sustainable urban development. This approach is vital in a Caribbean island such as
Jamaica where rapid urban growth and development have by and large impacted negatively on the natural environment. If this trend is not curbed then it is the impoverished that will suffer most, as they are the ones who often tend to live on marginal lands, not being able to do much to recuperate in times of crisis. Since planning basically revolves around the health and safety of people in society, it is imperative that steps are taken to achieve a sense of balance as it relates to land-use development in our fragile ecosystem.
References:
1. Bernstein, J. Land Use Considerations in Urban Environmental Management/ UNDP/UNCHS/World Bank Urban Management Programme. Vol. 12. No. 3, 1994.
2. Clarke, C. Kingston, Jamaica: Urban Development and Social Change. - Kingston: Ian Randle Pub, 2006.
3. Davis-Mattis, L. Marine Debris: Jamaica's Response / UN Open Ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea (6th Meeting). NY., 2005
4. Drakakis-Smith, D. Third World Cities: 2nd Edition, London: Routledge, 2000.
5. Tindigarukayo, J. An Attempt to Empower Jamaican Squatters: Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 16, 2001.
ОТДЕЛЬНЫЕ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИЕ АСПЕКТЫ ПРИМЕНЕНИЯ ОГНЕСТРЕЛЬНОГО ОРУЖИЯ ВОЕННОСЛУЖАЩИМИ ВОЙСК НАЦИОНАЛЬНОЙ ГВАРДИИ
Емцев Владимир Александрович
адъюнкт кафедры военной педагогики и психологии Пермского военного института войск национальной гвардии Российской федерации
Россия, г. Пермь
Аннотация: В данной работе предложены к рассмотрению отдельные аспекты применения огнестрельного оружия военнослужащими национальной гвардии. Обусловлены категории цели, задачи и направленности его применения. Показанные понятия сопоставлены с направленностью подготовки военнослужащих к действиям, связанным с использованием огнестрельного оружия.
Ключевые слова: огнестрельное оружие, адекватность применения, точка прицеливания, условия применения, цель поражения.
INDIVIDUAL PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS OF USE OF FIREARMS VOENNOSLUJASHI THE TROOPS OF THE NATIONAL GUARD
Emtsev V. A.
аdjunct Department of Military Psychology and Pedagogy Perm military Institute of National Guard of the Russian Federation
Russia, Perm
Abstract: In this paper we propose to consider some aspects of use of firearms by the servicemen of the national guard. Due to the category goals, objectives and direction of its
