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Государственное управление. Электронный вестник
Выпуск № 46. Октябрь 2014 г.
Коммуникационный менеджмент и стратегическая коммуникация в государственном управлении
Дьорич М.
Ультраправый экстремизм в киберпространстве Сербии
Дьорич Мария — доцент, факультет европейского права и политических исследований, Университет города Нови Сад, Сербия. E-mail: mara. dj oric@yahoo. com
Аннотация
Цель настоящего исследования — сформулировать рекомендации по предотвращению роста ультраправого насилия среди молодежи. Цена, которую платят за рост такого насилия молодые люди, их семьи и общество в целом, слишком высока. Молодежь, участвующая в насильственных акциях, испытывает на себе значительные социальные и психологические последствия. Риски, вызываемые распространением темы насилия в Интернете, также постоянно усиливаются. Их прогнозируемый эффект меняется в зависимости от того, когда и при каких социальных условиях им подвергаются молодые люди (к примеру, серьезным фактором, толкающим к насильственным акциям, является безработица). Основная причина, по которой молодежь склоняется к насилию с ультраправыми мотивами, — простота решений, которые предлагает ультраправая пропаганда. Интернет стал главным коммуникационным средством, имеющим стратегическое значение для террористов и экстремистов, так как позволяет вести асимметричное информационное противоборство.
Главное средство предотвращения ультраправого экстремизма и терроризма — социализация, начинающаяся с эффективной системы социального обеспечения и школьного образования. Сформулированные в статье рекомендации требуют активного сотрудничества школы и семьи, силовых структур и органов ювенальной юстиции.
Ключевые слова
Экстремизм, терроризм, насилие, футбольные хулиганы, Сербия.
Introduction
After the Cold War, the importance of right-wing extremism as a political and social phenomenon has grown consistently. Yet, despite its obvious importance, the existing research into this phenomenon is not even sufficient to provide a clear and valid definition. Today, when right-wing extremism often serves as an ideological basis for terrorism, such a research becomes more urgent than ever.
Right-wing extremism and «hate speech» based on national and racial superiority became a social and political problem long before the emergence of the Internet. Today violent extremist organizations often use YouTube and similar video-sharing websites to promote their ideas and showcase their activities, and social networks, such as Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, Friendster, Hi5 etc. are used to spread extremist ideology. The conclusion may be that the Internet has thus become the medium of choice for «propaganda, dissemination of hatred, recruitment, training, fundraising, and for communications by racist
Государственное управление. Электронный вестник
Выпуск № 46. Октябрь 2014 г.
and terrorist organizations»1. For example, Boris Tadic, ex-president of Serbia, was
threatened by a Facebook group in 2010. The main problem for the prosecution was that the
legal instruments, on which the international law is based, have not been adapted for the era
of modern electronic communication.
The Internet as a modern media plays a significant role in the growth of right-wing extremism. Today, it is the most important medium for contacts between radical extremists not only in Serbia, but all around the world. Extremists use the Internet as «means of disseminating ideological tracts and virulently racist material, downloadable flyers, Internet radio programs, details of demonstrations, publications, contact addresses, e-group discussion forums, mailing lists, and even Aryan dating pages as a means of both recruiting and fostering communal cohesion among often disparate activists»2. These modern ways of communication have been added to traditional means, for example a telephone. Relations between right-wing extremism and the Internet create a phenomenon called virtual activism. This paper aims to describe and analyze cyber-fascism and cyber-Nazism, specifically focusing on Serbian organizations and individual activists.
Holocaust denial in Germany is illegal; therefore, modern Nazis use service providers outside their national borders. Likewise, there are lots of radical extremist organizations in Serbia, using service providers outside Serbian borders. Organizations of white supremacists have entered the digital era by using Internet communication. The famous racist David Duke said: «Never in the history of man can powerful information travel so fast and so far. I believe that the Internet will begin a chain reaction of racial enlightenment that will shake the world by speed of its intellectual conquest»3. The Internet can be a very dangerous medium, because it produces so-called «black propaganda» by disseminating false materials, the source of which is unidentifiable. Web sites enable right-wing movements to cross national borders in ways not possible in pre-Internet era.
Albert Brenton emphasizes a very important fact about extremism: «First, successful extremist's movements and politicians generally stress several issues that are only loosely connected. Second, these movements or politicians often — but by no means always — adopt extremist position on most or all of these issues. Third, when polled, supporters of extremist
1 See: Legal instruments for combating racism on the Internet / Institut suisse de droit compare. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Pub., 2009. URL: https://book.coe.int/eur/en/human-rights-and-democracy/4177-legal-instruments-for-combating-racism-on-the-internet.html (09.09.2014).
2 Blamires C., Jackson P. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia. T. 1. A — K. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006. P. 161.
3 Daniels J.Cyber racism: white supremacy online and the new attack on civil rights. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2009. P. 3.
Государственное управление. Электронный вестник
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movements or politicians typically express moderate views on many issues. Fourth, many
supporters of moderate parties hold extremist views or adopt an extremist position on some
issues»4. It is not difficult to realize that political extremism is a latent form of political
violence, and can easily be converted into terrorism.
Right-wing extremism in the EU and Serbia
When considering the right-wing extremism, ideology5 is the main criteria for classification of extremist groups. According to Karl Mannheim, the term «ideology» has two distinctly different meanings — the particular and the total. The particular ideology is «<skepticism>... of the ideas and representations advanced by our opponent»6. Total ideology is concerned with the characteristic and composition of the structure of a group. Right-wing ideology is a total ideology, and the main criteria for the definition of right-wing extremism.
The most important characteristics of right-wing ideology are: conservatism, tradition, religion, nationalism. The problem arises when a right-wing system of values becomes right-wing extremism. Fundamental elements of right wing extremism include: racism, chauvinism, xenophobia, Nazism, fascism, anti-Semitism, violence and generally «hate speech». For example, Haider's FPO party helped to advance the right-wing movements from the margins to the mainstream in Austria. Considering that political parties play very important role in modern neo-liberal political theory, it could represent a serious threat to democracy.
During the 90s, the process of transition and democratization started in Balkan countries. Ex-Yugoslav republics were unsuccessful in this modern transformation. Pashentsev said that in Eastern countries and Russia a «new professional, national, regional and other forms of social identities could be harmonized, become stable and not antagonistic only on the progressive economic and social grounds»7.
If we compare right-wing extremism in the EU and Serbia we can find the genus proximus and differentia specifica of this phenomenon. Political extremism in the EU is a consequence of globalization. People from Third World countries dream of a life in EU, some of them even become immigrants or asylum-seekers. Unfortunately, they either don't know how or simply don't want to be integrated into an existing political and social system, which
4 Brenton A. Political extremism and rationality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. P. 68-69.
5 See more: Djoric M. Radoslav Ratkovic o desnicarsom ekstremizmu // Radoslav Ratkovic — zivot i delo / Nauka i drustvo Srbije; Savez antifasista Srbije; Fondacija «Heinrich Boll Stiftung». Beograd: Gorapres, 2014. P. 126-137.
6 Mannheim K. Ideology and Utopia. New York; London: Routledge, 1991. P. 49.
7 Pashentsev E. The Role of Communication Management in the Socio-Political, Economic Development and Interaction of Eastern European Countries and Russia: from new Dividies to a United Europe // The Rising Role of Communication Management in World Politics and Business. Moscow: ICSPSC, 2009. P. 130-131.
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is a problem in itself. The second problem is xenophobia. Considering TE-SAT
«EU Terrorism and Trend Report»8 in 2009, a conclusion will be that the member states did
not report any right-wing terrorist attacks, but right-wing extremism was reported. No right-
wing terrorist attacks occurred in the EU in 2010, but some incidents that occurred in 2010
could be classified as right-wing extremism. The situation in 2011 and 2012 was similar. A
series of arrests of extremist users of the Internet was made9. The Internet remains an essential
communication platform for extremist and terrorist organizations and moreover some networks
are used for recruiting new members. After the 2011 Anders Breivik's terrorist attack in
Norway, and the discovery of right-wing terrorist group in Germany (Nationalsozialistischer
Untergrund), the EU decided to increase the monitoring of right-wing extremism, considering
Internet to be highly significant factor in the radicalization of young people.
The Ultra Right are constantly present at marches, concerts and demonstrations. Fights between left-wing and right-wing extremist groups and movements are very common. Despite left-wing's organization and cooperation, right-wing organizations maintain better international contacts through the Internet, and extremist groups from the Balkans and Serbia are a part of this communications network.
Annual report of Europol10, recorded four right-wing terrorist attacks in Hungary. HANLA (Hungarian Arrows National Liberation Army) planted explosives in footballs placed in front of homes of four Members of Parliament. The number of criminal offences related to right-wing extremists against left-wing extremists remains high in the EU. The Czech authorities dismantled a group of right-wing extremists called Bila Spravedlnost, and arrested 41 right-wing extremists in 2009.
WPM (White Power Music) is a crucial part of right-wing extremists communications throughout Europe and all around the world. The members of this music scene are prepared to use politically motivated violence. For example, in Belgium the WPM network called Blood and Honour organized several concerts in 2008. Blood and Honour is well known in Serbia and goes by the name Krv I cast. The American website BLOODANDHONOUR.COM contains news and articles on Nationalism, politics, current
8 TE-SAT 2009: EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report. Europol, 2009. URL: www.europol.europa.eu/publications/EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report TE-SAT/TESAT2009.pdf (09.05.2013).
9 TE-SAT 2013: EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report. Europol, 2013. URL: www.europol.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/europol te-sat2013 lr 0.pdf (12.11.2013).
10 TE-SAT 2010: EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report. Europol, 2010. URL: www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/TE-SAT%202010.pdf (10.06.2010).
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events and musical entertainment that show obvious racist overtones, but are nevertheless
protected by the 1st Amendment to the United States Constitution.
Serbian organization Krv i cast is a neo-Nazi group, which celebrates the birth of Hitler and mimics European right-wing extremist groups. White Power Music in Serbia is represented by the following bands: Battle Flags, Beli orao, Tribute to Screwdriver, Revolt BGD, Stay the same, etc. If we analyze their songs we will often encounter words like: violence, proud, nation, religion, blood, hate... They organize concerts not only in Serbia, but everywhere in the Balkans region, and maintain a close connection with Blood and Honour in Argentina, Belarus, Bulgaria, Bohemia, Chile, England, Flanders, France, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine and the USA. Their ideology supports the ideas of William Pierce, Dietrich Eckart, Richard Wagner, Wilhelm Bauer, Riis Knudsen, Henry Ford; and domestic writers such as Branimir Males, Tanasije Dinic.
Blood and Honour newspapers in Serbia are published under the names of Trijumf magazine and Krv i cast. This type of media spreads Nazi political ideology, propaganda and news. Serbian Blood and Honour program propagates that «National-Socialism is the basis of the movement»11, and that the ZOG (Zionist Occupation Government) is the enemy, which means that anti-Semitism is an important part of their ideology. The principal structure and system of organization in Krv i cast movement is the Leaderless resistance. The only exception from this principle is the German chapter of Blood and Honour.
Paganism, especially Wotanism, is also a part of Serbian neo-Nazi ideology. Based on what has been said so far, it is very easy to find a connection between Blood and Honour in Serbia and American ultra-right organizations such as Christian Identity, Ku Klux Klan and Aryan Nations.
Official website of the Serbian Blood and Honour Division presents an uncompromising National Socialist ideology. The intention of this website is to motivate young members to radicalize their activities and promote violence. Serbian Blood and Honour Division has at the moment 861 registered members.
In the Second World War, Serbia fought against fascism and Nazism. During the Holocaust era, almost a million people were killed in Croatia — mostly Serbs, Romas and
11 Deset principa nacionalsocijalizma. NS — forum // Крв и Част Србща [Be6cajT]. URL: www.bhserbia.org/glavna.htm (11.03.2014).
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Jews. Milan Bulaic estimates the number of victims of Jasenovac (the mass concentration
death camp during Second World War in Croatia) as at least 700 000 people12.
This shows that Serbia never supported right-wing extremism; in fact, it was mostly Serbs who gave their lives fighting fascism and Nazism. The only logical explanation for the birth of extreme right movements in Serbia is frustration-aggression. This hypothesis is accepted by many scientists and psychologists. In Berkowitz's definition «frustration produces an emotional state, anger, which heightens the probability of occurrence of drive-specific behaviors, namely aggressions»13. One of the reasons Serbian youth is frustrated is the low quality of life in Serbia — young people have no perspectives, no jobs, no money, no confidence in the future, and they are easily manipulated by ideological organizations using the Internet. Average income in Serbia is 59 162 RSD, or (approx.) 500 EUR14 — not nearly enough to maintain a satisfactory lifestyle. Dragan Simeunovic observed that social pathology in Serbia «has grown drastically in the last two decades as a result of civil wars, the transition process and very fast and radical economic changes. Young people are both the victims and the perpetrators of different forms of social pathology»15.
Right-wing extremist organizations in Serbia
Nacionalni stroj is a modern Serbian Nazi organization. It is one of the most radical right-wing organizations in Serbia, with heterogeneous aims: «Unitary state in which the basic principles are national freedom, social justice and racial biological protection of the people»16. Members of Nacionalni stroj support Nazi ideas connected with Serbian nationalism and anti-Semitism. It is a political organization, which promotes a world view based on the ideas of national freedom, social justice and racial identity. Nacionalni stroj expects consistency in terms of Aryan way of life from its members, therefore it does not tolerate duplicity or any form of drug abuse. They represent typical extreme right-wing attitude towards many problems, stating, for example, that abortion is a murder and must be prohibited, except in cases of racial mixing, rape, when a woman is in mortal danger, or if it is
12 See more: Bulajic M. Jasenovac: the Jewish Serbian holocaust (the role of the Vatican) in nazi-ustasha Croatia (1941-1945). Belgrade: Fund for Genocide Research Strucna Knjiga, 2002.
13 WolfgangM., Franco F. The Subculture of Violence: Towards an Integrated Theory in Criminology. New York; London: Routledge, 2001. P. 144.
14 Prosecne zarade po oblastima // Republicki zavod za statistiku. Republika Srbija. URL: www.webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/dokumenti/saopstenja/ZP11/zp11042010.pdf (25.06.2013).
15 Simeunovic D. The Violence as Social Pathology of Young People in the Balkans // Stanje kriminaliteta u Srbiji i pravna sredstva reagovanja. Beograd: Pravni fakultet Univerziteta, 2008. P. 125.
16 See: Forum Stormfront. Istorija i kult // Stormfront.org [Site]. URL: www.stormfront.org/forum/t43231 -8/ (30.01.2013).
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proved that it is the fruit of the mentally retarded or physically defective17. Goran Davidovic,
the leader of this racist movement, planned to start a new political party «New program», but
was instead arrested and prosecuted.
Despite the male predominance in right-wing extremists' organizations, women
become more and more interested in membership. This trend is probably a consequence of
women's emancipation.
Right-wing extremists belong to the modern Nazi subculture, which represents a
specific system of values and a specific lifestyle: «It is used first and foremost by groups of
people whose common identity is based on similar culture (including ideas and symbols),
rather than on an institutional affiliation»18. Skinheads are the most popular subculture of the
right-wing ideology. They are a marginal, extreme group, but most importantly, they use
violence as a method.
Many Serbian skinheads are members of hooligan groups or right-wing
movements19. Some political parties support these extremists. It is a well known fact that
political parties often use extremist groups against their political opponents. Hooliganism is a
violent behavior often displayed by the audience at sporting events. A fan belonging to a
hooligan group builds his personal identity around aggression, destruction of property and the
intention to injure the opponent. Hooliganism is colored by extreme emotions that cross
boundaries of rational thought, and is known to narrow the horizon — as soon as you get
closer to the unauthorized border you then strive to reach a new one.
The aim of hooligans is not only to demonstrate their intolerance, but also to draw
attention by shocking the public20. Racist-nationalist songs and slogans are usually
accompanied at the stadiums by related symbols, which confirms two facts: man is homo
symbolicum, and homo communicens. Hooligans use specific symbols, such as swastika and
Celtic cross, both of which represent white supremacy.
Each hooligan group has its own rules, hierarchy and system of values. The common
enemy influences the cohesion of the group. They «hate» foreigners, different races and
nations and homosexuals. In 2009, homosexual groups planned to organize a «Pride Parade»
in Serbia; however, this event was stopped, because it presented a high security risk. All right-
wing reacted in the same way — promised to prevent the parade by using violence. Ministry
17 See: Forum Stormfront. Zenski kutak // Stormfront.org [Site]. URL: www.stormfront.org/forum/t274706-13/ (23.05.2013).
18 Mudde C. Racist Extremism in Central and Eastern Europe. London; New York: Routledge, 2004. P. 270.
19 See more: DjoricM. Huliganizam. Beograd: Nauka i drustvo Srbije, 2012.
20 DjoricM. Nasilje u sportu (teorijske kontroverze i uzroci) // Kultura polisa. 2014. Br. 3. Ctr. 101-118. URL: http://kpolisa.com/7page id=2142 (09.09.2014). P. 101-121.
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of Internal Affairs was unable to guarantee the safety of parade participants and the event was
eventually canceled.
According to the Republic of Serbia Law on Prevention of Violence and Misbehavior at Sports Events, violence in this type of public assembly is a criminal offense. In accordance with this law, Uros Misic, who attacked a police officer (which is qualified as an attempted murder) was sentenced to ten years in prison. According to unofficial data, the police recorded between 2 500 and 3 000 hooligans in Serbia. After the murder of Brice Taton21 (French), the state decided to finally deal with fans-extremists. The prosecution sued for elimination and prohibition of several fan groups and right-wing extremist organizations. The most vulnerable were the aggressive fans of «Crvena Zvezda», «Partizan» and «Rad».
Hierarchy of a fan group is reminiscent of a military unit: at the top of the hierarchy is the leader, followed by leaders of subgroups and other supporters, and common soldiers who carry out the orders. Each fan group operates on the principle of loyalty. Betrayal is punished severely, and an accepted proof of loyalty is either a show of violence against other fans, or a conflict with the police. Violence was associated with football from the very beginning of this immensely popular sport. Alcohol plays an important part in hooliganism. It's well known that people behave differently when they are in a crowd, and do not feel responsible for their behavior. The main document relating to football hooliganism is the European Convention on Spectator Violence and Misbehavior at Sports Events and in Particular Football Matches. This was drafted by the Council of Europe as a response to the Heysel stadium disaster of 198522.
Hooligans in Serbia are politicized and used by political parties. During the revolution of 2 000, Serbian hooligans were used against Milosevic's regime.
The Internet becomes the main weapon of football hooligans, because they use modern technology and the Internet to organize fights. Hooligans show violence not only on the field but also through the hate speech that may be registered in vivo.
Right-wing extremism is not just a Serbian phenomenon. In many other post-communist countries the extreme right is strong — for example, in the Czech Republic. In 2009 in the Czech Republic, a new trend appeared, influencing the change in terminology. Groups began to use openly the term «National Socialism». «This change evokes the propagation of Nazism and harks back to the heritage of the "Third Reich" and the Nazi
21 Brice Taton, 28 years-old man, was attacked in a Belgrade bar ahead of the Europe League match between Partizan Belgrade and Toulouse on 17 September, 2009.
22 The European Response to Football Hooliganism // Policing European Football Hooliganism [Site]. URL: www.people.exeter.ac.uk/watupman/undergrad/rowlands/europeanresponseconvention.htm (12.12.2013).
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dictatorship in Germany between 1933 and 1945. This tendency was noted in the propaganda,
slogan banners and website presentation of the Nardodni odpor and the Delnicka strana»23.
New and low-cost communication tools such as Internet and social networking are used by right-wing extremist organizations for many reasons:
1. To present their ideology;
2. To recruit new members;
2. To organize promotional campaigns;
3. To define targets;
4. To organize attacks;
5. To inform other members of the group.
In 2009 Serbia accepted Additional Protocol to the Convention on Cybercrime, concerning the criminalisation of acts of a racist and xenophobic nature committed through computer systems. For the purposes of this Protocol, racist and xenophobic material means «any written material, any image or any other representation of ideas or theories, which advocates, promotes or incites hatred, discrimination or violence, against any individual or group of individuals, based on race, color, descent or national or ethnic origin, as well as religion if used as a pretext for any of these factors»24.
Right-wing extremists are often regarded as ignorant and marginal by the mainstream culture. Digital media is a dangerous place where Nazi-supporters communicate, which is a paradox; however, democracy makes on-line cooperation between extremists possible. «Epistemology of race — how we know about race and racism — are rooted profoundly different experience»25. This experience comes from the social context of racial inequality. Ultra Right movements in Serbia are a part of international right-wing extremism and represent the crisis of the modern society.
Conclusion
The main question of this paper is: how to prevent right-wing extremism among youth7 There are several possible answers.
Firstly, the existence of neo-Nazi organizations should be condemned by the whole society as a whole. Legal punishment is not enough. The most important thing is the education of youth and family environment. If teenagers live in dysfunctional families where
23 TE-SAT 2010: EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report.
24 Konvencija o visokotehnoloskom kriminalu // Ministarstvo unutrasnjih poslova RS [Official Site]. URL: www.mup.vladars.net/.../KONVENCIJA-O-SUZBIJANJU-KOMPJUTERSKOG (10.06.2010).
25 Daniels J. Op. cit. P. 189.
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violence is the basis of communication they will certainly have issues with aggression — and
with social and political violence as consequences. Political violence in the form of right-wing
extremism can be especially dangerous. During the 90s, Serbia had many problems: wars,
sanctions, international isolation. Families were destroyed by social factors (low standard and
unemployment), and frustration-aggression was ubiquitous. It is very important to follow the
experiences of other countries as well. A study of the neo-Nazi group in Kristiansand (Bj0rgo,
Carlsson & Haaland, 2001) revealed that «some of the most active neo-Nazis had suffered
from severe lack of care in the family, some have parents with severe drug and psychiatric
problems, and some had deceased parents. It is useless in such cases to try to use the parents
as a "stepping-stone" back into the community, as is the case with adult extremists above 18
to 20 years of age»26. The conclusion is that stable family and social support may prevent
violence. Among the agents of socialization that play an important role are parents who need
to be fully integrated into preventative work today even more than in the past. Secondly, the
state has to monitor and control violent groups including groups of teenagers. The problem lies
in the fact that young people are often manipulated by different non-democratic political
organizations. Nowadays, the Department of Interior Affairs can control right-wing groups
thanks to Internet communications and modern technology. Local police is responsible for
preventing violence through patrolling the streets, intervening in acute situations, investigating
illegal activities and bringing perpetrators to court.
We can indicate different options:
- Pedagogical programs geared toward young people help to prevent violence and reduce prejudice;
- Specially designed programs foster political and social participation of young people and show them ways of social integration;
- Building a civil society;
- Monitoring Internet communications.
Internet can help in finding and monitoring extremists because modern Nazi groups very often use websites for propaganda.
Social workers, schools, families, and mass-media should play the most important role in preventing and monitoring of right-wing extremism, not only in Serbia, but all around
26 Peter R., Michaela G., Silke S. Prevention of Right-Wing Extremism, Xenophobia and Racism in European Perspective / Eds.: P. Rieker, M. Glaser, S. Schuster. Halle: Deutsches Jugendinstitut, August 2006. URL: www.dji.de/bibs/96 6736 Prevention of Right Wing Extremism.pdf (01.05.2014).
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the world. In the struggle against extremism and terrorism in the cyberspace, governments
should use counter-propaganda.
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Государственное управление. Электронный вестник
Выпуск № 46. Октябрь 2014 г.
Djoric M.
Cyberspace and right-wing extremism in Serbia
Marija Djoric — Ph.D., Assistant professor, Faculty of European Legal and Political Studies, University of Novi Sad, Serbia. E-mail: mara. dj oric@yahoo. com
Annotation
The aim of this research is to develop the prevention model for right-wing violence among young people. The costs of violence paid by young people, their families, and society are extremely high. Youth who participate in violence are more likely to experience a wide range of negative social and psychological outcomes. Risk factors for Internet violence are not static. Their predictive value changes depending on when they occur in a young person's development, in what social position (unemployment), and under what circumstances. The most important reason for success of right wing violence is the simplicity of answers for many problems. The Internet has become the main strategic communication assets for terrorists and extremists and has ensured them a favorable communication asymmetry.
Prevention against right violence-extremism and terrorism is socialization starting from the inside of social services and schools. In order to be effective, these approaches generally require the collaboration of schools, families, law enforcement and juvenile justice authorities.
Keywords
Extremism, Terrorism, violence, hooligans, right-wing, Serbia.
