1Uchinchi renessansyosh olimlari: zamonaviy vazifalar,
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UO'K: 930.2(575.171)"18/20" THE STUDY OF THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL LIFE OF KHOREZM DURING THE AFRIGHID PERIOD (A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL
ANALYSIS)
M. Q. Rajapov
PhD student, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Institute of
History.
mardonbekoff@gmail.com, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5245-6021
Uzbekistan.
Introduction. The historical region of Khorezm, situated at the crossroads of ancient trade routes in Central Asia, offers a unique vantage point for studying the socio-economic and political transformations that shaped the region from the 4th to the 10th centuries. This period, marked by the rule of the Afrighid dynasty, witnessed significant developments in agriculture, trade, craftsmanship, and the institutionalization of slavery, each playing a pivotal role in the region's economic and social fabric. The rich archaeological findings and historical documents from this era provide a window into the complexities of Khorezm's society, its economic practices, and its governance structures. This article aims to dissect the multifaceted socioeconomic landscape of Khorezm during the Afrighid dynasty, employing a comprehensive analysis of archaeological evidence, historical records, and previous scholarly research. By examining the interplay between agricultural innovation, trade dynamics, craftsmanship evolution, and the nuances of slavery within the societal hierarchy, this study endeavors to contribute to the broader historiographical narrative of Central Asia. The article further explores the administrative mechanisms and social stratification evident in ancient documents, shedding light on the governance system and economic management practices that underpinned the Afrighid state. Through this investigation, the article seeks to enhance our understanding of the economic and social undercurrents that influenced Khorezm's development during a period of significant historical transition.[12, 48-49.]
1.1. Literature review. A comprehensive review of existing literature, including archaeological reports, historical documents, and prior scholarly analyses, forms the foundation of this study. This review aims to collate and synthesize previous findings on the economic, social, and political aspects of Khorezm during the specified period, identifying gaps and areas for further investigation.
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he methodology adopted for this study integrates a multidisciplinary approach to explore the socio-economic and political structures of Khorezm during the Afrighid dynasty, focusing on the period from the 4th to the 10th centuries. The research design is structured around the following methodological components:
Archaeological Evidence Analysis: The study extensively utilizes archaeological findings from the region to gain insights into the material culture, settlement patterns, agricultural practices, and trade dynamics of Khorezm. This involves examining artifacts, irrigation systems, architectural remains, and other physical evidence that shed light on the socio-economic conditions of the time.
Historical Document Examination: Critical analysis of historical documents, including inscriptions, manuscripts, and contemporaneous records, provides direct evidence of the social structures, governance models, and economic practices in Khorezm. This analysis focuses on deciphering and interpreting texts to extract information relevant to the study's objectives.
Comparative Analysis: By comparing the socio-economic and political structures of Khorezm with those of other regions in Central Asia, this study seeks to contextualize Khorezm's developments within the broader historical and geographical landscape. This comparative approach helps in understanding regional differences, influences, and interactions.
Interdisciplinary Integration: Drawing upon insights from archaeology, history, economics, and anthropology, the study adopts an interdisciplinary perspective. This approach facilitates a more holistic understanding of the complex interplay between economic activities, social hierarchies, political institutions, and cultural practices in ancient Khorezm.
3.Analysis and Discussion. Researchers have divided the study of the economic and social life of Khorezm in the 4th to 10th centuries into three periods based on the region's economic indicators' rise or decline, the social life of the population, the degree of influence on it, and the extent to which sources reflect this issue: 1) the 4th to 6th centuries, 2) the 7th to 8th centuries, and 3) the 9th to 10th centuries. Archaeological research indicates that in the 4th to 6th centuries, Khorezm cities significantly declined, and irrigation networks shortened. According to E.E. Nerazik, one of the primary reasons for the region's downturn during this period was the invasion and mass migration of nomadic tribes, disrupting existing social and economic structures and negatively affecting local society[1,P-215-216.]. The author also cites external pressures and changes in trade routes as factors contributing to the socio-economic downturn in Khorezm during this period. S.P. Tolstov's research
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describes a profound socio-economic crisis in the 4th to 6th centuries, evidenced by the majority of the population moving from cities to fortresses, feudals living in unprotected small fortresses scattered across fields, abandonment of Kushano-Afrighid culture fortresses, a significant decline in the quality of ceramic goods, and the extensive production of small copper coins with various seals. The researcher identifies the sharp decline in irrigation networks as a primary cause of Khorezm's socio-political downfall, attributing this decline to civil wars, internal strife, and external invasions[10,P-194,2013;11,P-33.]. Y.G'ulomov concludes that the Afrighid rise to power was marked by popular uprisings against the dynasty, a state of deep despair in places like Anqoqal'a, Qirqizqal'a, Jildikqa'la, Tuproqqal'a, and the unfinished construction of Filqal'a near Katqal'a, suggesting that such socio-political turmoil lasted for two centuries[4,P-123-124.].
The information above indicates that the socio-economic life of Khorezm during the 4th to 6th centuries is substantiated by archaeological research conclusions. In this period, internal political conflicts, external invasions, and natural factors led to the economic decline of the Afrighid state. All researches reflect the general landscape of the issue, yet they do not illuminate the types of craftsmanship that formed the economic foundation of the state, livestock farming, commodity-money relations, and internal and external trade.
From the second half of the 6th century, Khorezm began to experience a resurgence in its economic and social life. This process can be explained by the Afrighids ending political fragmentation and the strengthening of central authority. E.E. Nerazik discusses the monetary reforms carried out in Khorezm during the 6th and 7th centuries, noting the replacement of the MLK (king) ideogram with MR'Y MLK' (lord king), which indicates the Afrighids established political control over the regional authorities[1,P-151; 2, P-83; 8, P-26;]. S.P. Tolstov explained the significant role of agriculture in the economic life of Khorezm during the 6th to 8th centuries through archaeological findings, which included seeds of wheat, mung beans, grapes, cotton, dried pears, pumpkins, and other fruits from settlements[11,P-151.]. The author also concluded that livestock and craftsmanship, evidenced by remains of cotton fabric garments, sheepskin, felt, and sheep's wool, had evolved distinctly from the Kushano-Afrighid (3rd-5th centuries) culture, marking Khorezm's agriculture as technically characteristic of the Middle Ages. Additionally, the uniformity of the peasants' fortresses suggested a lack of sharp class distinctions at that time[11, P-152-153.]. However, Y.G'ulomov challenged S.P. Tolstov's view that there was no property hierarchy in Khorezm during the 6th to 8th centuries, arguing that the distinct
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nature of Khorezm villages from those of the ancient period, the beginning of property relations, and the implementation of a property hierarchy are evident[4,P-124.]. Y.G'ulomov emphasized the high quality and uniform firing of pottery in the 7th to 9th centuries and the archaeological findings of organic remains as indicators of advanced agriculture[4,P-126]. O.Qdirniyozov highlighted the construction of new fortresses and castles in the 7th to 8th centuries, noting new types of ceramic dishes recorded from these fortresses, suggesting such internal socio-economic growth and intensified cultural contacts with neighboring peoples, including nomads, were due to this[5, P-65-67.].
The literature review reveals a lack of consensus among researchers on the stratification of property ownership within the Afrighid state. S.P. Tolstov argued that there was no property stratification in Khorezm until the 8th century, basing this conclusion on the uniformity in size, style, and structure of new constructions from the 5th to 8th centuries. Conversely, Y.G'ulomov emphasized that buildings erected during the Hephthalite and Turkic Khaganate periods indicated property stratification. E.E. Nerazik pointed out that the landscape of agricultural communities along canals in Khorezm's farming oases, controlled or owned by local rulers, reflected the hierarchical structure of a property-owning society[9, P-109.]. Through the analysis of documents from Tuproqal'a and Mug' mountain, E.E. Nerazik and V.A. Livshits identified social stratification labeled as "qfi", dividing the population into three groups: aristocrats - "'rtkr", traders - "yw'ky", and workers - "k'rykr", highlighting the significant role of the trader class in Khorezm's socio-economic life. The researcher emphasized the importance of trade, citing Bichirun's studies on Khorezmian traders' long journeys by caravans, portraying trade as a prestigious and distinct profession in Khorezm [6,P-267 ; 7, P-35-36].
Research has also touched upon the subject of slavery relations in Khorezm. Specifically, A.V. Livshits emphasized the presence of slaves in households as an indicator of socio-economic disparity and the role of slavery in the property structure of Khorezm society, which had characteristics of patriarchal (domestic) slavery. E.E. Nerazik highlighted valuable information about the social, economic, and political institutions of the Afrighid household found in documents from Tuproqqal'a, noting that the term "xrytk" implies "purchased" indicating individuals who were in a state of slavery due to financial obligations or agreements, possibly in the form of debt slavery or in some forms of servitude. A.V. Livshits, studying the documents from Tuproqqal'a, explained that the term "BYT'" means "owner" or "master of the house" referring to individuals who owned many slaves[1, P-220; 6, P-267-269.].
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E.E. Nerazik also found that the term "xunnanik" in the ossuaries of the 7th-8th centuries means "son of a Hun" indicating another significant source of slaves, which were war captives, confirming the diversity of the origins of slaves, some of whom were descendants of the Huns. It is notable that, similar to other regions in Central Asia, besides slaves and servants, there were "kadiwar" individuals serving wealthy people. Although personally free, they were economically and socially dependent on wealthy feudals, relying on their patronage and protection. Individuals owning their house and land were referred to by the Khorezmian term "XwanOa'cak " meaning "possessing a good share" followed by the term "fiaySarak" meaning "possessing a share"[[3,P-54, 6,P-14.]
Documents from the Tuproqqal'a archive also provide information about positions that managed the state's economic life. For instance, the term "prmt'r" found in the documents from Mug' mountain, similar to the term "prm'nd'r" meaning "order-bearer" according to E.E. Nerazik, implied a role that resolved economic affairs throughout the country. Another term contributing to the understanding of the Afrighid state's economic life is "srk'r" meaning "sarkor" widely used in the Middle Ages [6,P-14 ; 7, P-206 ]. This word, likely borrowed from Persian, means "administrator," "supervisor," "manager," indicating that the holder of this position managed the villages in the region. From the analysis of the literature, it can be concluded that "order-bearers" were responsible for the state's mints, stimulating internal and external policies, and managing the royal treasury. Furthermore, it can be inferred that sarkors, besides leading rural communities, were also involved in collecting taxes from designated areas and mobilizing the population for communal labor.
4.Conclusion. The comprehensive analysis of Khorezm during the Afrighid dynasty, particularly between the 4th and 10th centuries, reveals a dynamic and multifaceted socio-economic landscape. Archaeological evidence and historical documents highlight the critical role of agriculture in the region's resurgence, particularly after the 6th century, driven by political stabilization and the strengthening of central authority. The presence of slavery within households underscores the socio-economic disparities and the patriarchal characteristics of property ownership in Khorezmian society. The diversity in the origins of slaves, including war captives and the descendants of Huns, along with the existence of "kadivar" individuals, illustrates the complex social stratifications and economic dependencies that underpinned the region's economy.
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Further, the study into administrative roles and the management of the state's economic affairs indicates a sophisticated governance system, with positions such as "order-bearers" and "sarkors" playing pivotal roles in economic regulation, tax collection, and the mobilization of communal labor. The findings suggest that Khorezm was a society with a rich cultural and economic fabric, where agriculture, trade, craftsmanship, and slavery were interwoven to form the backbone of its economic life. This study not only enhances our understanding of the Afrighid state's socio- and political structures but also contributes to the broader historiography of Central Asia, offering insights into the mechanisms of economic governance, social stratification, and the intricate relationships between different sectors of the economy in ancient Khorezm.
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