CC BY
71The relationship between goal-orientations and sport commitment among athletes
Noshin Benar, Mohsen Loghmani
University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
Annotation:
The purpose of present study was exploring of relationship between goal-orientations and sport commitment among athletes and comparison of goal-orientations and sportcommitment and their constructs based on gender and type of sports. Participants were 108 Iranian athlete (40 female and 68 male), who responded to Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (T.E.O.S.Q) and Sport Commitment Model (SCM) questionnaire. Data were analyzed by Pearson's correlation
coefficient, Independent-Samples
t-test, and One-way ANOVA at P=0.05. The findings indicated that there were positively and significantly association between constructs, including sport enjoyment, personal investment, social constraints,
involvement opportunities, and
social support, whereas, involvement
alternatives and task-orientation had negatively and significantly association with sport commitment. Also, team and open-skilled sport athletes had sport commitment and ego-orientation more than individual and closed-skilled sport athletes. As well as, female's athletes had sport enjoyment and social support more than male's athletes. It is possible that task-oriented players are elite and expert athletes, because extend and develop their fundamental skills in one's sport by their task-orientate characteristic, and probably these players with these characteristics tendency to turnover until experience more situations. Thus, these players had a less sport commitment than amateur athletes. Also, gender and type of sport differences can be results of individual differences and nature of sports skills. Implications for goal-orientations and sport commitment and their impacts on athletes as well as future research directions are further discussed.
Key words:
orientation, sport, commitment, elite, athletes, individual, team, sports.
Ношин Бенар, Мохсен Логхмані. Взаємовідношення між цільовою орієнтацією і спортивним вибором серед атлетів. Мета роботи - дослідження взаємовідношення між цільовою орієнтацією і спортивним вибором серед атлетів і їх порівняння за структурою гендерних типів в спорті. У дослідженні брали участь 108 атлетів (40 жінок і 68 чоловіків), які відповіли на питання спеціальної спортивної анкети (Т.Е.О^^) і анкети спортивного вибору ^СМ). Дані проаналізовані за допомогою коефіцієнта кореляції Пірсона, незалежна вибірка t-test (ANOVA, Р=0,05). Отримані дані указують на позитивний взаємозв'язок між елементами, такими як спортивне задоволення, особисті інвестиції, соціальні обмеження, сприятливі можливості для ділової діяльності, соціальна підтримка. При цьому береться до уваги, що альтернативна участь в цільовою орієнтацією має негативний зв'язок із спортивним вибором. Також, кваліфіковані спортсмени в командних видах мали великий взаємозв'язок спортивного вибору і орієнтації, чим спортсмени в індивідуальних видах. Також жінки-спортсменки мали більше спортивне задоволення і соціальну підтримку, чим атлети чоловіка. Можливо, Що цільова орієнтація елітарних і досвідчених атлетів-ігровиків, розширює і розвиває їх фундаментальні навички в своєму виді спорту. Це дає їм можливість орієнтуватися на досягнення заданих характеристик за рахунок життєвого досвіду. Тому, ці гравці мали менш відповідальне відношення, чим атлети-любителі. Також, гендерні і спортивні відзнаки можуть бути результатами індивідуальних відзнак і природою спортивних навичок. Значення цільової орієнтації і спортивного вибору та їх взаємодії на прикладі атлетів передбачається провести в майбутніх дослідженнях і обговореннях.
орієнтація, спорт, зобов'язання, еліта, атлети, індивідуум, команда, спорт.
Ношин Бенар, Мохсен Логхмани. Взаимоотношение между целевой ориентацией и спортивным выбором среди атлетов. Цель настоящей работы - исследование взаимоотношения между целевой ориентацией и спортивным выбором среди атлетов и их сравнение по структуре гендерных типов в спорте. В исследовании принимали участие 108 атлетов (40 женщин и 68 мужчин), которые ответили на вопросы специальной спортивной анкеты (Т.Е.О^^) и анкеты спортивного выбора ^СМ). Данные проанализированы с помощью коэффициента корреляции Пирсона, независимая выборка t-test (ANOVA, Р=0,05). Полученные
данные указывают на положительную взаимосвязь между элементами, такими как спортивное удовлетворение, личные инвестиции, социальные ограничения, благоприятные возможности для деловой деятельности, социальная поддержка. При этом принимается во внимание, что альтернативное участие в целевой ориентацией имеет отрицательную связь со спортивным выбором. Также, квалифицированные спортсмены в командных видах имели большую взаимосвязь спортивного выбора и ориентации, чем спортсмены в индивидуальных видах. Также женщины-спортсменки имели большее спортивное удовольствие и социальную поддержку, чем атлеты мужчины. Возможно, что целевая ориентация элитарных и опытных атлетов-игровиков, расширяет и развивает их фундаментальные навыки в своем виде спорта. Это дает им возможность ориентироваться на достижение заданных характеристик за счет жизненного опыта. Поэтому, эти игроки имели менее ответственное отношение, чем атлеты-любители. Также, гендерные и спортивные отличия могут быть результатами индивидуальных отличий и природой спортивных навыков. Значения целевой ориентации и спортивного выбора и их взаимодействие на примере атлетов предполагается провести в будущих исследованиях и обсуждениях.
ориентация, спорт, обязательство, элита, атлеты, индивидуум, команда, спорт.
Introduction
Clearly sport and other forms of physical activity can have an important positive impact on the lives of youth and other people [22]. But, approximately one-third of the youth who participate in a specific sport do not participate the next year many because they do not feel competent or enjoy their sport anymore [22, 28 & 27]. Goal-orientations in athletes are an effective factor for their performance of tasks and sport assignments. The kinds of goals an athlete selects as valuable are the evidence of his goal-orientations [33]. Goal-orientations pointed that what definition people have about success in sport and physical activities [7]. Task and ego-orientation are two goals for success. Ego-oriented people emphasize on demonstrate their ability comparing with other people and © Noshin Benar, Mohsen Loghmani, 2012.
peers, whereas task-oriented people focused on their skills development and correct performance. Also, individuals in the same situation who have different achievement goal-orientations may disagree whether a particular experience was successful or not. Strong task-orientations are related to achievement striving and overall enjoyment of one’s sport [12]. Actually, according to Zahariadis and Biddle
(2000), task-orientation was most strongly related to skill development and team motives, whereas ego-orientation was related most clearly to status motives [34].
Many determine factors influence both goal-orientations. For example Chin, Khoo and Low (2009) indicated that local differences effects on task and ego-orientation. According to their research findings, rural athletes reported higher ego-orientation than urban
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athletes, especially for female rural athletes. Rural and urban male athletes also showed similar ego-orientation as their mean difference was small [4]. Furthermore, previous studies findings related to gender differences in achievement goal-orientations have been inconsistent. Hanrahan and Cerin (2009), and Hanrahan and Biddle (2002) found that females scored significantly higher than males on the task-orientation, but no gender differences for ego-orientation [11, 12]. In contrast, Li et al. (1996) as cited Hanrahan and Cerin (2009), argue that males scored higher than females on ego-orientation, but no differences between genders on task-orientation [17].
Additionally, other factors influences both goal-orientations, including: parental feedback and role of parents (Gershgoren et al, 2011; McDavid et al, 2012; Edwardson & Gorely, 2010; Tamminen & Holt, 2012), age (Chin Khoo and Low, 2009), competitive and practice environments (Van de Pol & Kavussanu, 2011), and settings (Papaioannou et al, 2007) [10, 18, 8, 25, 4, 26 & 20]. Despite of these factors, evidence suggests that type of sport (individual/team sports, or open/close skilled sports) may influence both goal-orientations. In this field, Hanrahan and Cerin (2009) indicated that individual sport athletes were higher in ego-orientation than team sport athletes, however, no significant type of sport differences for task-orientation, but Hanrahan and Bidlle (2002) argue that closed-skilled sports may promote a stronger task-orientation than open-skilled sports, because their research findings demonstrated that athletes from track and field scored significantly higher than squash and football players on task-orientation [11, 12]. Also, goal-orientations may have association with sport commitment, because athletes tendency towards special goals (task or ego) create positively or negatively typical sport commitment. As well as both goal-orientations may have negative or positive relation with sport commitment constructs. Wortman and Sorrentino (1987) define commitment as whatever it is, that makes a person engage or continue in a course of action when difficulties or positive alternatives influence the person to abandon the action [29]. In the field of sports, commitment is defined as a psychological state representing the desire or resolve to continue sport participation [23].
The sport commitment construct is posited as having six direct predictors that can increase or decrease sport commitment: sport enjoyment, involvement opportunities, personal investments, social constraints, and involvement alternatives, and social support. Sport enjoyment is defined as a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun. A personal investment includes personal resources invested in an activity that could not be recovered if participation were discontinued. Social constraints are the social expectations or norms that create feelings of obligation to remain in the activity.
Involvement opportunities support a sense of attachment and, therefore, commitment to the activity. Involvement alternatives occur when alternatives are perceived to be more attractive than the current sport pursuit, and final construct, social support is defined as
the support and encouragement the athlete perceives significant others provide for their involvement in sport [5]. Overall, sport enjoyment, personal investments, social constraints, involvement opportunities, and social support are hypothesized to increase sport commitment, while involvement alternatives are posited to decrease sport commitment [23, 6]. According to research findings of Casper, Gray and Stellino (2007), present a model from sport commitment that constructs of involvement, personal investment, social constraints, and social support directly association with sport enjoyment and sport commitment, but involvement alternatives indirectly association with both sport enjoyment and sport commitment and according to this model finally sport enjoyment and sport commitment directly association with participation frequency and purchase behavior [6]. Given that goal-orientations clearly relation with many important variables in field of sport and physical activities such as sport participation motivation, coaches, physical education teachers, social orientations, cultural differences, peers, and parents [22, 19, 31, 13, 14, 8, 18, 16, 15 & 11], it seems that goal-orientation have can specially positive or negative association with sport commitment and their constructs, including: sport enjoyment, personal investment, social constraints, involvement opportunities, involvement alternatives, social support.
For these reasons the research model was relations between goal-orientations, and constructs with sport commitment (Fig 1.). According to research model, sport commitment may occur when goal-orientations (task and ego), and constructs (including sport enjoyment, personal investment, social constraints, involvement opportunities, involvement alternatives, and social support) are perceived to be more than before times in athletes activities. Thus, the main purpose of present study is exploring of relationship between both goal-orientations and sport commitment and their constructs, and also comparison of goal orientation and sport commitment based-on demographic characteristics such as gender and type of sports (individual/team sports, or open/closed skill sports).
Figure 1. Research Model
Method
Participants
Participants were 108 Iranian athlete (40 female and 68 male), ranging in age from 6 to 35 (Mean = 21.12, SD = 4.65) who were member of type of sports (team and individual). Actually, ninety nine athletes were from
a team sports (handball, volleyball and football), whilst only nine athletes from an individual sports (track and field).
Instruments
The measures of variables in goal-orientations had acceptable validity and reliability as demonstrated in previous goal-orientations research of Italian version [2], Spanish and Portuguese Adolescents [3], type of sports [11, 12], and practice and competitive environment [26]. Also, previous studies in field of sport commitment model reported acceptable validity and reliability for sport commitment scale and their constructs such as sport enjoyment, personal investment, social constraints, involvement opportunities, involvement alternatives, and social support [1, 30 & 6].
Demographic questions: A short questionnaire
assessed age, gender, main sport.
Goal-orientations: The Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (T.E.O.S.Q), assessed dispositions towards task and ego goal-orientation [34, 7]. The TEOSQ is a 13-item self-report measure of achievement goal orientation in sport. It consists of task and ego subscales answered on a 5-point Likert scale [12]. In the present study, the internal consistency was .73 for ego-oriented and .67 for task-orientation.
Sport commitment model: twenty-seven items from the sport commitment model questionnaire were used [23]. Each item was based on a 5-point Likert-1type scale. This questionnaire, focused on sport commitment and construct of sport enjoyment, personal investment, social constraints, involvement opportunities, involvement alternatives, and social support. Variables reliabilities from the sport commitment model are listed in Table 1. In present study, social constraints had been most reliable (a = .76), and Involvement opportunities had been least
reliable (a = .48).
Procedures
After ethical approval, the questionnaires were distributed in practice environment of sports teams who volunteering for collaboration in this research before it is begin.
Data analyses
Continuous dependent variables (goal-orientations, sport commitment model variables) were examined for presence of outliers and normality of distribution. All variables have normal distributions by using One-Sample Kolmogrov-Smirnov test, for this reason, was used parametric statistical methods for examining research hypothesized. Correlations between goal-orientations, sport commitment and their constructs determined using by Pearson’s correlation coefficient test. An Independent-Samples t-test was conducted to explore gender (male vs. female) differences in ego and task goal-orientations and sport commitment model. Also, one-way ANOVA was conducted to analyze type of sport (handball, volleyball, track and field and football) differences in ego and task goal-orientation and sport commitment model. Due to multiple testing, a probability level of 0.01 and 0.05 was adopted. Significant multivariate main and interaction effects were analyzed by means of univariate F-tests and estimation of means and standard errors of the outcome variable by levels of the interacting variables [12].
Results
Pearson’s correlation coefficients provided information about variables interrelations (Table 2). All subscale scores were means of appropriate items. According to Table 2 and results of Pearson’s correlation coefficients test, task-orientation were negatively and significantly association with sport commitment (r = -.37, P< .01), while, there are no clearly and significantly associate between ego-
Tablel. Cronbach’s Alpha for each construct in the Sport Commitment Model
Construct Internal reliability
Sport commitment .60
Sport enjoyment .58
Personal investment .49
Social constraints .76
Involvement opportunities .48
Involvement alternatives .66
Social support .68
Table2. Correlation between goal orientations and sport commitment and interrelations of all variables (N = 108)
Mean SD Goal- Orientations Sport Commitment
Task Ego SPC SE PI SC IO IA SS
Goal-Orientations
Task 12.43 3.75 .16 -.37** -.36** -.17 .15 -.06 .18 -.15
Ego 17.81 4.22 -.03 -.11 .04 -.17 ■ -.26** -.03 -.01
Sport Commitment
SPC 16.68 2.63 .40** .47** .22* .20* -.21* .34**
SE 16.42 3.02 .31** .06 .18 -.13 .34**
PI 15.35 2.22 .17 .18 -.22* .25*
SC 9.46 4.13 .56** .17 .43**
IO 8.59 2.73 .15 .26**
IA 13.29 3.81 .04
SS 10.4 2.96
Note. SPC = Sport Commitment, SE = Sport Enjoyment, PI = Personal Investment, SC = Social Constraint, IO = Involvement Opportunities, IA = Involvement Alternatives, SS = Social Support. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
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orientation and sport commitment. Therefore, there are negative relation between goal-orientation specially task-orientation and sport commitment.
In contrast, there are positive and negative relation between constructs and sport commitment. Based on results of present study, there are positively and significantly association between sport enjoyment, personal investment, social constraints, involvement opportunities, and social support with sport commitment, whereas there are statistically negatively and signifintly associate between involvement alternatives and sport commitment (r = -.21, P< .05). Personal investment have been most positive related to sport commitment (r = .47, P< .01), and involvement opportunities have been least positive related to sport commitment (r = .20, P< .05).
Furthermore, interrelations results of all variables revealed that there is no significant association between task and ego-orientation, but task-orientation negatively associated with sport enjoyment, but ego-orientation negatively associated with involvement opportunities. As well as, factor of social support positively and significantly associate to sport enjoyment, personal investment, social constraints, and involvement opportunities, while there are clearly and negatively associated between involvement alternatives and personal investment (r = -22, P< .05). Also, involvement opportunities was related most clearly too social constraints (r = .56, P< .01).
An Independent-Samples t-test for sport enjoyment resulted in a significant gender main effect according to Table 3 (t =6.66, P= .05). Females athletes (M = 17.4; S.D. = 2.11) had a higher sport enjoyment than males athlete (M = 15.7; S.D. = 3.32). As well as, significant gender main effects were observed for social support. Females athletes had higher social support than males athletes (t =5.53, P= .02). In contrast, significant gender main effects were not observed for sport commitment, personal investment, social constraints, involvement opportunities, and involvement alternatives. As well as, no significant main effect for male or female effects on goal orientations such as task and ego-orientation (Table 3).
Results of One-way ANOVA for type of sports significant main effects on sport commitment (F=3.05, P= .02), revealed that handball players (M = 18.1; S.D. = 2.31) had higher sport commitment than individual sport players such as track and field (M = 17.5; S.D. = 2.44)
and team sport players including football (M = 17.7; S.D. = 1.88), and volleyball (M = 16.1; S.D. = 2.65), whereas, significant type of sport main effects were not observed for sport enjoyment, personal investment, social constraints, involvement opportunities, involvement alternatives, and social support. Also, according to Table 3, significant type of sport main effects were observed for goal orientation and specially ego-orientation (F=3.34, P=.01). Football players (M = 21.3; S.D. = 4.83) had higher ego-orientation than other players including track and field (M = 17.5; S.D. = 3.57), volleyball (M = 17.5; S.D. = 3.93), and handball (M = 16.0; S.D. = 4.24), but significant type of sport main effects were not observed for task orientation.
Discussion
The main purpose of this study was investigating of relation between goal-orientations and sport commitment among athletes. The significant finding in this study regarding goal-orientations was negative relation with sport commitment (fig 2). This negative relation observed specially for task-orientation. Given that task-oriented athlete are professional players, because extend and develop their fundamental skills in one’s sport by their task-orientate characteristic [7], and this subject can be happen to less commitment for them. As well as, professional and task-oriented players are expert and elite in special sport and probably these players with these characteristics tendency to turnover until experience more situations. In contrast, sport teams and clubs received each elite, expert and task-oriented players. Therefore, it is possible that task-oriented players are elite and expert, and elite players usually less sport commitment than amateur players.
The other purposes of present study were to examine the relationship between sport commitment and constructs. Based on research and theory, examining these relations was also conducted, and indicated that constructs of sport commitment, personal investment, social constraints, involvement opportunities, and social support had positive association, and involvement alternatives had negative association to sport commitment. These findings supported previous researches about sport commitment [6, 32]. Likewise, Weiss, Kimmel and Smith (2001) tested the model with youth tennis players and after removing a few unreliable items the findings demonstrated a satisfactory
Table3. Comparison of sport commitment and goal orientations based on gender an d type of sports
Mean(SD)
Goal-Orientations Sport Commitment
Task Ego SPC SE PI SC IO IA SS
GND M 13.1(3.4) 18.4(4.19) 16.3(2.3) 15.7(3.32) 14.8(2.17) 10.0(4.37) 08.6(2.77) 14.0(3.94) 10.2(3.22)
FE 11.2(4.03) 16.6(4.09) 17.2(3.07) 17.4(2.11) 16.1(2.13) 08.4(3.53) 08.4(2.71) 12.0(3.24) 10.6(2.45)
t/S TOS H .46/.49 .59/.44 2.49/.44 6.66/.05 .01/.89 1.79/.18 .32/.85 1.39/.24 5.53/.02
11.4(4.92) 16.0(4.24) 18.1(2.31) 17.9(2.32) 15.7(2.23) 10.8(3.44) 09.4(2.55) 12.6(3.95) 11.0(1.86)
V 12.5(3.71) 17.5(3.93) 16.1(2.65) 16.3(3.11) 15.1(2.22) 09.1(4.09) 08.4(2.7) 13.5(4.02) 10.3(2.98)
TF 12.2(2.31) 17.5(3.57) 17.5(2.44) 15.6(2.78) 14.8(2.16) 11.7(5.35) 09.8(2.8) 12.5(3.7) 10.7(3.66)
F 13.6(3.23) 21.3(4.83) 17.7(1.88) 14.9(3.03) 16.4(2.29) 08.3(3.33) 07.5(2.59) 13.5(2.46) 09.6(3.59)
F/S .53/.71 3.34/.01 3.05/.02 1.92/.11 .93/.44 1.96/.10 2.11/.08 .27/.89 .73/.57
Note. GND = Gender, M = Male, FE = Female, TOS = Type of Sports, H = Handball, V = Volleyball, TF = Track
and Field, F = Football, t = t-value, F = F-test, S = Significance, SPC = Sport Commitment, SE = Sport Enjoyment, PI = Personal Investment, SC = Social Constraint, IO = Involvement Opportunities, IA = Involvement Alternatives, SS = Social Support.
fit of the model to the data as a majority of fit indices met statistical criteria [30]. Also, Weiss, Kimmel and Smith
(2001) reported that while testing the fit of the model to the data they were able to find a satisfactory fit only after removing two unreliable items (involvement opportunities and sport commitment), while according to findings of present study showed that involvement opportunities was determined variable for sport commitment, because this variable provide learning and experiences chances for athletes. This significant finding is consistent with the original test of the SCM (Scanlan et al, 1993), and in the adults’ fitness participation literature (Alexandris et al, 2002) [23, 1].
Based on research and according Fig 2, personal investment and sport enjoyment were the most related to sport commitment. It seems that enjoyable settings in sport and physical activities can be creating a sport commitment in athletes, except other various benefits. Additional, sport coaches and managers with providing appropriate contexts can be vital role in appearance of personal investment and talents athletes. As well as, according to many previous studies such as Wilson et al (2004), Carpenter (1992), in this current study, social support had been positive related to sport commitment, while Weiss, Kimmel and Smith (2001) found that social support was not a significant predictor of sport commitment. Of course, Scanlan, Russell, Beals and Scanlan (2003) found a positive relationship between social support from parents, coaches, and teammates and sport commitment among elite athletes [24]. However, future researches can be present obvious information about social support and their relation with sport commitment, because only a few studies have investigated the relationship between these variables. Despite, in this study observed significant
and positive relation between social constraints and sport commitment, but this finding inconsistent with Casper, Gray and Stellino (2007) research; because in their study social constraints were not found to significantly contribute to tennis commitment. According to this study, sport commitment occur when constraints of peers, coaches, parents, managers and etc to be received in athletes.
In contrast, fig 2 showed that there are negative relation between involvement alternatives and sport commitment. This finding that demonstrated reducible impact of involvement alternatives on sport commitment, consistent with many studies (Guillet, Sarrazin, Carpenter, Trouilloud, & Curry, 2002; Weiss et al., 2001), but Casper, Gray and Stellino (2007), were not found significantly predictor sport commitment [9, 30 & 6]. It is possible that among team and individual sports athletes for reasons of alternatives such as investment of time and energy and etc a negative impact on their commitment, nonetheless, alternative activities may not have contributed to the commitment of the players in the current study [6].
Furthermore, according Table 2, results of interrelations showed that had a strong and negative relation between task-orientation and sport enjoyment. Based on findings, with more task-oriented, reduce both sport enjoyment and commitment. It is important, because for more sport enjoyment and commitment among athletes should be preventing from team and individual sports player’s attitude toward task-orientations. Thus, based on research findings and according to fig 2, constructs of sport enjoyment, personal investment, social constraints, involvement opportunities, and social support having positive relation, and construct of involvement alternatives and goal-orientation specially task-orientation having negative relation with sport commitment.
Figure 2. Result of significant correlation of research model
The other significant finding in this study regarding goal-orientations was that team sport athletes were higher ego-orientation more than individual sport athletes. People with a strong ego-orientation define success as being better than others. These findings supported previous researches. For example Hanrahan and Biddle (2002) in their study demonstrated that track and field sport athletes reported stronger task-orientations than football players [11]. It seems that individual sports provide performance information that could easily allow athletes to focus on improving personal best times, distances, or scores, in turn promoting a task-orientation [12].
Despite, individual sports that often involve the obvious ranking or comparison of individual athletes may promote an ego-orientation (Hanrahan and Cerin, 2009), but based on findings of this study could be cited that team sports tendency towards ego-orientations than individual sports, in contrast, according to Hanrahan and Biddle (2002) Closed-skilled sports, may promote a task orientation, supported by the finding of present study that track and field athletes were less in ego-orientation than team sport athletes such as Football and volleyball players [11]. Therefore, open-skilled sports athletes had higher ego-orientations more than closed-skilled sports athletes by using results of this study. As well as, could be cited that team and open-skilled sports athletes had higher ego-orientations more than individual and closed-skilled sports athletes. These findings can be results of nature of sports skills. Individual and closed-skilled sports such as track and field may for reason having special skills, movement athletes’ concentration towards learning and development of fundamental and principal skills and performance more than team and closed-skilled sports. However, for obtain obvious reasons in this field, need to future and more researches.
Also, the other significant finding in this current study regarding six constructs of SCM and sport commitment was that female athletes were higher sport enjoyment and social support more than male athletes, whereas Scanlan et al (1993) found no significant difference between males and females and the six constructs of the SCM and sport commitment [23]. It seems that females perceived enjoyable settings more than males in sports environments. Furthermore, female concept and experiences construct of social support by their unique features in support, based on social and psychological researches. As well as, team sport athletes (such as handball and football players) had a higher sport commitment more than individual sport athletes (track and field athletes). Such, team sports having atmosphere of affiliation and friendship creating to high sport commitment in own athletes. On other hand, team and open-skilled sports had higher sport commitment more than individual and closed-skilled sports. Thus, type of sports (team/individual, or open/closed-skill sports) and gender differences (female and male), influences constructs of SCM and sport commitment, but these findings were not observed for goal-orientations (task and ego). Future research may examine the repeat relation between goal-orientations and sport commitment in other cultures, age ranges, and other type of sport.
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Information about the authors: Noshin Benar
[email protected] Guilan University of Iran P.O. Box 1841, Rasht, Iran.
Mohsen Loghmani [email protected] Guilan University of Iran P.O. Box 1841, Rasht, Iran Came to edition 25.05.2012.
Информация об авторах: Ношин Бенар
[email protected] Университет Гилян, Рашт, Иран.
п/я 1841, Рашт, Иран.
Мохсен Логхмани [email protected] Университет Гилян, Рашт, Иран.
п/я 1841, Рашт, Иран.
Поступила в редакцию 25.05.2012г.
