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73І ПЕДАГОГІКА І та медико"біол°гічні
----- --------------- проблеми фізичного
виховання і спорту
Comparison between sport participation motivation and goalorientation of youth athletes: the role of parents’ education level
Noshin Benar, Mohsen Loghmani
Faculty of physical education and sport sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
Annotation:
The aims of present study was to (A) compare and prioritizing the main six motivations of sport participation of youth athletes, (B) compare and prioritize task and ego-orientation of youth athletes, and (C) the role of parents' education level and its impact on the motivation of sport participation and goal-orientation youth athletes. In the study, descriptive-analytic design was applied. For the study 376 Iranian youth athletes were singled out by cluster-random sampling. They answered to participation motivation questionnaire (PMQ) and task & ego-orientation in sport questionnaire (T.E.O.S.Q). Also data about parents' education level (PEL) was obtained using questions about demographic features. The findings showed that those who participated in individual sports had more motivation for status than team sports athletes and they were more ego-orientation. Also it was found that more highly educated mothers came to induce internal motivation in youth athletes using Kruskal-Wallis test, whereas more highly educated fathers came to induce both internal and external motivation to them. It seems that those athletes who participated in individual and open-skilled sports are more ego-oriented than those who participated in team and open-skilled sports. The feedbacks which are based on task orientation are probably provided, along with promotion of mothers' education level; however with promotion of fathers' education level, both of these feedbacks and those based on egoorientation will be provided, probably for their children to participation in sport activities.
Keywords:
status, skill development, parents’ education level, skill, sports, team, individual sports, oriented.
Ношин Бенар, Мохсен Логхмані. Порівняння між мотивацією спортивної діяльності і цільовою орієнтацією юних атлетів: роль рівня освіти батьків. Мета справжнього дослідження є: (A) порівняння і ранжирування у відповідність з пріоритетами шість мотивів спортивної діяльності участі юних атлетів; (B) порівняння і ранжирування у відповідність з пріоритетами завдання і суб'єктну орієнтацію юних атлетів; (C) ролі рівня освіти батьків і його вплив на орієнтацію і вибір спортивної діяльності юних атлетів. У дослідженні був використаний описово-аналітичний підхід. Для дослідження випадковим чином була складена вибірка з 376 іранських юних атлетів. Вони відповіли на питання анкети (PMQ) і спортивної анкети (T.E.O.S.Q) про мотивацію участі в спортивній діяльності і цільовій орієнтації. Також були здобуті дані про рівень (PEL) освіти батьків, використовуючи питання про демографічні особливості. Отримані дані показали, що спортсмени індивідуальних видів спорту мали великі спонуки, чим атлети командних видів. Також було встановлено з використанням тесту Kruskal-Wallis, що більш високоосвічені матери роблять більший вплив на внутрішні спонуки молодих атлетів. У той самий час, більш високоосвічені батьки роблять більший вплив, як на внутрішні спонуки молодих атлетів, так і на зовнішніх. Показано, що в індивідуальних видах спорту атлети більш кваліфіковано орієнтовані ніж у командних. Зворотні зв'язки, які засновані на орієнтації вірогідніші за умови зростання рівня освіти матері. Проте з підвищенням рівня освіти батьків обидва зворотні зв'язки грають велику роль в спонуці юних атлетів до вибору спортивної діяльності.
статус, розвиток навику, рівень освіти батьків, навик, спорт, команда, індивідуальний спорт, орієнтований.
Ношин Бенар, Мохсен Логхмани. Сравнение между мотивацией спортивной деятельности и целевой ориентацией юных атлетов: роль уровня образования родителей. Цель настоящего исследования является: (A) сравнение и ранжирование в соответствие с приоритетами шесть мотивов спортивной деятельности участия юных атлетов; (B) сравнение и ранжирование в соответствие с приоритетами задачи и субъектную ориентацию юных атлетов; (C) роли уровня образования родителей и его влияние на ориентацию и выбор спортивной деятельности юных атлетов. В исследовании был использован описательно-аналитический подход. Для исследования случайным образом была составлена выборка из 376 иранских юных атлетов. Они ответили на вопросы анкеты (PMQ) и спортивной анкеты (T.E.O.S.Q) о мотивации участия в спортивной деятельности и целевой ориентации. Также были получены данные об уровне (PEL) образования родителей, используя вопросы о демографических особенностях. Полученные данные показали, что спортсмены индивидуальных видов спорта имел большие побуждения, чем атлеты командных видов. Также было установлено с использованием теста Kruskal-Wallis, что более высокообразованные матери оказывают большее влияние на внутренние побуждения молодых атлетов. В тоже время, более высокообразованные отцы оказывают большее влияние, как на внутренние побуждения молодых атлетов, так и на внешние. Показано, что в индивидуальных видах спорта атлеты более квалифицированно ориентированы на чем в командных. Обратные связи, которые основаны на ориентации более вероятны при условии возрастания уровня образования матерей. Однако с повышением уровня образования отцов обе обратные связи играют большую роль в побуждении юных атлетов к выбору спортивной деятельности.
статус, развитие навыка, уровень образования родителей, навык, спорт, команда, индивидуальный спорт, ориентированный.
Introduction
Many youths participate in sport programs in their leisure time in order to promote their health [37]. Benefits of sport participation include self-believe, promoting virtues, excitation management and control in sport, better behavior in school, reduction of health problems, lower rate of school abandoning and addiction [21, 29, 34, and 31]. Youths who participate in leisure time and out school time may have other goals such as learning. By reviewing theories about learning, it seems that motivation is one of the crucial factors of learning. Scientific and technical investing in childhood and youth periods is essential to sport skill learning. Importance of organized learning and considering basic techniques and tactics needs more study in this specific age group. Children and youth are in learning process of fundamental techniques and skills © Noshin Benar, Mohsen Loghmani, 2012 doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.105478
according to the age properties. So preservation of their sport interest is so important. Investigating and identifying their motivation about sport participations in classes, is one of the factors that encourage them and increase their interest.
Sport psychologists have studied various types of motivation with specific terms such as internal, external, success and competitive motivations. Chih yu (2006) surveyed student motivation in sport and physical activity and finally introduced five motivations: health, good physical appearance, self-efficiency, social requirements and enjoyment [5]. Also Weiss (2000) explained individual inclinations reasons to physical activity by using Harter’s model (1987). Social support such as supporting parents, coaches and peers lead to self-confidence and understanding of self-efficiency which are appealing to him/her. Hassandra, Goudas, and
Chroni (2003) investigated related elements to internal motivation of sport participation according to individual, environmental-social differences [16].
Surely youths who participated in sport activities have more inclination to specific goals plus motivational priorities. Task-orientation and ego-orientation have been accepted among researchers [26]. Task-oriented individual emphasis on fitness promotion and technique performance skillfully, while ego-oriented individual emphasis on competition, status and confirming their abilities to their peers.
Many determinant factors that influence athlete goalorientation have been identity such as gender (Hanrahan & Cerin, 2009; Hanrahan & Biddle, 2002), local differences (Freeman & Anderman, 2005), and age (Chin, Khoo & Low 2009), and competition and practice environment (Van de Pol & Kavussanu, 2011) [15, 14, 10, 6, and 33]. Also type of sport influences athlete goal-orientation. In this field, Hanrahan and Biddle (2002) showed that people who participated in closed-skill sports more task-oriented than those participated in open-skilled sports [14]. Also, Yousefi, Ramzaninezhad, and Hemmatinezhad (2009) showed that individual sports athletes possess more ego and task-orientation than those who participated in team sport according to investigation on 384 athlete women [36].
Despite ofthese determinant factors of goal-orientation, there is an obvious relation between sport participation and goal-orientation of athletes [36, 1, and 25]. For instance, Zahariadis and Biddle (2000) investigated on a child sport motivation in Britain schools and stated that there is a positive relation between task-orientation and internal motivations (including motives of team atmosphere and skill development), while there is a relationship between ego-orientation and external motivation (such as motive of status) [37]. Also founding of Yousefi, Ramzaninezhad, and Hemmatinezhad (2009) study, revealed that there is a positive and significant association between mastery climate and ego-orientation, while there is a negative and significant association between performance climate and both ego and task-orientation [36].
Sport participation motivation is one of the specific motivations related to individual differences in sport participate as types of motivation that guide athletes towards their goals base upon individual differences in various sports. Definitions of participation motivation and goal-orientation make some difference in individuals for participation in sport activities. Identifying some factors like sex, age differences, type of sport and culture would aid effective designs development in order to provide individual requirements.
Evidences show that parents, teachers of physical educations, coaches, peers, cultural, economical differences and social inclinations also affect goalorientation and sport participation motivation of athletes [31, 27, 35, 13, 18, 9, 23, 20, 17, and 28]. Level of parents’ education is one of the intra-cultural elements of each society because different education levels of parents lead to different feedbacks for children that result their treatment and notion formation. The feedbacks are
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also effective in sport activities of youths. In this field, Gershgoren, Tenenbaum, Gershgoren, and Eklund (2011) showed that type of parental feedbacks (based upon ego or task-orientation) significantly affects motivational climate of among youth football players [11].
Also, McDavid, Cox, and Amorose, (2012) revealed that parents have an influential and important role in their children physical activity motivation. Motivational climate made by parents in their children can be either based upon external goals such as status and medal or internal goals such as satisfaction resulted from correct skill performance and individual grows. Parents make motivational climate advertently or inadvertently (reinforcement of selfconfidence, development of competence and skills) that can affect children [23].
However, parents recognize many benefits for themselves and their children in sport participation [24]. Consequently families have a crucial role in development of competences, internal motivations, enthusiastic and emotional promotions and learning about coping in children [19, 32, and 2].
Regarding the previous studies in the field of the sport participation motivation, goal-orientation, parents’ education level in different people and contradictory results, some questions will be brought up such as what is youths’ motivation for participating in sport classes during their leisure time, what is their main goal, and in type of sports, are these goals and motivations different between boys and girls? Furthermore, this study aims to answer to this question that does parents’ education level affect their youth athletes’ motivations and goal-orientation? In other word, the aim of present study is to compare sport participation motivation, goal-orientation and also its relation to the parents’ education level.
Materials and methods
Participants
In this research 376 Iranian youth athletes (boy = 214, girl = 162) were studied. Data was obtained about the youths who participated in sport activities in their leisure time such as basketball (n = 132), football (n = 73), volleyball (n = 82) and combat (n = 89) sports. The age of our statistical universe is 12-16 years old.
Instrumentations
Demographic questions: A short questionnaire
assessed age, gender, main sport, and parents’ education level.
Sport participation motivation: Participation
motivation questionnaire (PMQ) of Gill, Gross & Huddleston (1983) was used to gather data about the sport participation motivation [12]. This questionnaire has 30 questions that assess the possible reasons to participate in sport programs. In this questionnaire, 5- point Likert scale was used from 1 (that is not important) to 5(that is very important). By using the factorial analysis of the participation motivation questionnaire, Zahariadis and Biddle (2000) introduced 6 important motivations including status, energy release, team atmosphere, skill development, affiliation and fitness. The reliability of the questionnaire obtained by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .85 [37].
І ПЕДАГОГІКА І та медико"біол°гічні
*----“------------* проблеми фізичного
виховання і спорту ___________________________
Goal-orientation: Moreover, to determine the
goal-orientation, the youths answered the task and egoorientation in sport questionnaire (T.E.O.S.Q) of Duda and Nicholls (1992) [8]. This questionnaire extracts scores of the task-oriented goal and the ego-oriented goal by giving seven questions and six questions, respectively. Each question was answered by 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (I disagree completely) to 5 (I agree completely). Castillo, Tom'as, Balaguer, Fonseca, Dias & Duda, (2010) confirmed the reliability and validity of this questionnaire by studying of the task and ego-orientation in sport questionnaire on high school students in Spain [n (2473)] and Portugal [n (2486)]. This questionnaire was confirmatory factorial analyze using its Italian version by Bortoli and Robazza (2005). Previous researches reviewed the reliability of each sub scaled of the questionnaire [4, 3]. These researches reported Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of the task-orientation sub scaled between .62 to .85 and the ego-orientation sub scaled from .80 to .85 [14, 15]. In this research, reliability of the task and ego-orientation sub scaled was obtained by Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient 0.80 and 0.79, respectively.
Procedure
After confirming the validity of the questionnaires by instructors, researchers and specialists in physical exercise and sport sciences, each of them was distributed between youth athletes in combat, volleyball, basketball and football classes. At first, it was requested of them to write their parents’ education level and then answer 30 questions of the first questionnaire (sport participation motivation). After complementing the first questionnaire immediately, they answered the last 13 questions that assessed their task and ego-orientation.
Data analyses
The descriptive statistics methods and also, Freedman, Kruskal-Wallis and Uman-Wittney tests were used to analyze the data. By using the descriptive statistics methods, data was obtained including the parents’ education level, average and standard deviation of the research variables scores. In order to determine priority of motivations and goal-orientation of youth athletes, Freedman test was used. Kruskal-Wallis test was used to determine significance of differences in sport participation motivation, goalorientation and parents’ education level and then, in order to identify the exact point of differences, Uman-Wittney test was used in the case of being significant.
Results
According to the Table 1, there is a significant difference between priorities of applying the motivations in youth athletes [df (5), x2 (1466.29), p = .001]. Their priorities include status, skill development, energy release, team atmosphere, affiliation and fitness, respectively.
The comparison between the participation motivations for type of sports showed that the youth combaters have more tendency to status, so that the difference between their tendency and basketball players’ tendency is significant [p<0.001, Z (-3.75)]. Furthermore, youth basketball players (Mean rank = 118.04) have motivation of skill development more than youth combaters (Mean rank = 92.7). This difference was significant at p<0.003,
and Z (-2.95), between team sport athletes (basketball players) and individual athletes (combaters).
The other results of present study showed that there is a significant difference statistically between the priorities of using goal-orientation in youth athletes [df (1), x2 (288.92), p<0.001], that their priorities are task-oriented and ego-oriented, respectively (table 2).
The comparison between goal-orientations for type of sports revealed that football players (Mean rank = 54.11) and combaters (Mean rank = 83.12) have ego-orientation more than basketball players (Mean rank = 21.91). So that the difference between youth football players and basketball players was significant in the ego-oriented goal at p<0.012, Z (2.50), and this difference between youth basketball players and combaters was significant in the ego-oriented goal at p, 0.013, and Z (-2.49). Based on our findings, the level of applying the ego-oriented goal in combaters was more than the other sports.
According to this fact that parents’ education level influences ontheir children’s sport participation motivation, but by comparing between the goal-orientation and parents’ education different levels there was not seen any significant difference. The results of Kruskal-Wallis test showed that the youths who have well-educated mothers therefore, have more motivations for skill development, team atmosphere, energy release than youth athletes who have low educated mothers. Moreover, the youth athletes who have well-educated fathers have external motivations like status and internal motivations to the youth athletes who have low educated fathers (Table 3).
Whether, based on the type of sport participation motivation or goal-orientation, any significant difference was not seen between girls and boys.
Discussion
The purpose of present study is compare and prioritizing the main six motivations of sport participation of youth athletes, compare and prioritize task and ego-orientation of youth athletes, and the role of parents’ education level and its impact on the motivation of sport participation and goal-orientation youth athletes. According to the researches, motivation is an essential element that plays an important role in making physical behavior and sport in youths [37, 31].
In order to continue physical activities and regular sports that are appeared as behavior in people and also attend and participate inactive youths in sport programs therefore, motivation element should be considered very necessary. Paying attention to these emotional and affective needs make youths satisfy about their physical activities and sport. Therefore, it will work as a power full intensive and also it will bring very useful results.
This study showed that youths’ motivation to participate in physical exercise in their leisure time (different sports like football, volleyball, basketball and combat sports) includes the motivation of status, skill development, energy release, team atmosphere, communication to others or affiliation and fitness, respectively. The findings indicated that youths are more task-oriented. In the other word, in this age period, youths tend to do sport skills correctly and to compete and also, by learning sport techniques and
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skills, they try to evaluate their physical efficiencies and abilities through social comparisons more and more and to get attention the important resources indexes such as teachers, parents and peers. Therefore, the motivations
such as status, skill development and energy release indicate the priority of these motivations.
Moreover, the results of the different sports showed that the youth combaters tend to status motivation more, but
Table 1.
Means, SDs, mean ranks for sport participation motivation.
Variable Status SD ER TA Affiliation Fitness Mean 17.88 13.9 11.87 7.09 6.25 5.38 SD 4.66 4.58 2.26 2.73 2.45 2.36 Mean Ranks 5.82 4.77 4.27 2.55 1.99 1.6 Priority 1 2 3 4 5 6
Note. SD = Skill Development, ER = Energy Release, TA = Team Atmosphere. (P< .01)
Table 2.
Means, SDs, Mean Ranks for Goal-Oriented.
Variable Mean SD Mean Ranks Priority
TO 27.75 5.48 1.95 1
EO 17.96 5.7 1.05 2
Note. TO = Task-Oriented, EO = Ego-Oriented. (P< .01)
Table3.
Comparison of parent education level in youths sport participation motivation and goal-orientation.
Scales Variable PEL Number Number MR MR X2 X2 LS LS
S Father Mother Father Mother Father Mother Father Mother
P G 26 38 126.7 158.3
O Status D 131 157 176.1 173.5 11.57 7.31 .009 .062
R B 137 139 190.2 199.2
T OB 72 33 204.5 198.9
P G 26 38 149.4 158.1
A ER D 131 158 170.7 167.4 9.26 15.98 .026 .001
R B 139 139 202.3 212.1
T OB 73 35 190.2 190.6
I G 26 38 159.7 170.8
C TA D 129 155 171.0 168.5 8.39 8.79 .039 .032
I B 136 137 182.2 193.9
P OB 73 35 211.3 217.5
A G 26 37 168.7 168.9
T Affiliation D 128 156 179.1 181.3 1.62 1.45 .653 .694
I B 137 137 181.6 190.1
O OB 73 35 194.9 177.3
N G 26 38 165.4 164.3
M Fitness D 129 156 175.6 181.0 2.54 2.47 .476 .479
O B 138 136 192.2 191.5
T OB 70 34 179.6 173.6
I G 25 37 134.8 139.4
V SD D 127 154 168.2 171.6 11.51 10.11 .009 .018
E B 131 132 180.8 194.4
S OB 73 34 207.0 195.4
G 26 38 213.5 199.8
G TO D 125 152 178.8 178.2 5.55 2.02 .136 .568
O B 135 134 165.8 173.1
A OB 69 32 186.7 176.7
L G 26 38 218.5 186.8
S EO D 128 154 187.1 186.9 5.58 2.61 .133 .455
B 134 135 169.1 170.3
OB 73 35 178.5 194.7
Note. PEL = Parents Education Level, MR = Mean Ranks, LS = Level of Significance, G = Graduated, D = Diploma, B = Bachelor, OB = Over Bachelor (including Msc, and Ph.D), ER = Energy Release, TA = Team Atmosphere, SD = Skill Development, TO = Task-Oriented, EO = Ego-Oriented.
І ПЕДАГОГІКА І та медико"біол°гічні
*----“------------* проблеми фізичного
виховання і спорту __________________________
team sport youths such as basketball and football players have more internal motivation than combaters [36]. The evidences show the youths who participate in team sports, irrespective of sport capability and performing, they have high self-confidence, understanding of self- efficiency and external motivations [30].
Several environmental factors like sport teacher’s attitude and attention to the training, holding and setting of the leisure time classes and also the nature of the sport field could affect youths’ goal-orientation. In spite of Hanrahan and Biddle (2002), and according to Yousefi, Ramzaninezhad and Hemmatinezhad (2009), and Hanrahan and Cerin (2009), our findings show more egoorientation in the youths who participate in individual sports than team sports [14, 15, and 36]. It seems that these contradictory results are rooted in nature and the type of individual sport skills. In this study, combat sports that have the characteristic of open-skilled sports as individual sports, they show more ego-orientation than team sports as basketball. For this reason that there is ranking and personal status personally in these sports therefore, it would be the best chance for the athletes based on this criterion to compare themselves with their peers and pay less attention to learning fundamental techniques and skills of these sports. Hanrahan and Cerin (2009) as cited Hanrahan and Biddle(2002) by studying youths’ goal-orientation indicated that track and field athletes who experience the close-skilled characteristics, due to the nature of this sport, are more task-oriented than football players and squash players that have open-skilled characteristics [14, 15].
According to the pervious researches done on the impact of the close-skilled sports on athletes’ taskorientation, Majzub and Muhammad (2011) showed that golf players are more task-oriented [22]. Although there are the other factors such as gender, age and geographical situation which affect the results, the recent results align with the pervious findings about the impact of nature and characteristic of open-skilled sports on athletes’ egoorientation [14, 15, and 36].
While youth combaters are more ego-oriented, they tend to status motivation more. But task-orientation is more important for footballers and basketball players and their motivation is more skill development that these results support the previous studies [37]. It is noted that, by developing and promoting the skill, the status will be possible. In other word, the more youths are ego-oriented, the more skill development and status motivations increase. Regarding the contradictory evidences about the impact of gender on athletes’ goal-orientation and sport participation motivation, the role of gender in youths’ goal-orientation and motivation-making was not confirmed decisively. Several studies show that men are more ego-oriented than women and women are more task-oriented than men [14, 15]. Any way youths’ motivation and goal-orientation could not be predicted based on gender. In other word, more researches are needed.
Therefore, it seems that sport teachers should focus on the correct training of the fundamental skills and techniques of different sports. Because youths like to
learn these skills and learning these skills is a means to confirm their physical ability and self-efficiency and also, they like to be certified by people such as their parents, coaches, teachers and peers. Learning these skills makes the necessary of the status need in youth athletes. Therefore, sport teachers could improve skill and status motivations and also satisfy youths’ needs. As a result, youths will achieve their mental energy release and they will enjoy their physical activities and sport. Focusing on this process and the correct management of the path, play an important role in persuading youths to repeat and continue the physical activities and sport.
Parents like sport teachers are considered as the supportive elements of youths in instructional fields. Social supports especially the supportive element of parents’ high education level plays a vital role in increasing youths’ motivation to do physical activities and making self- confidence. The reason is that high education makes a good economic-social situation to family and according to the evidences, youths who don’t have an appropriate economic-social situation, are less supported by their parents in sport participation [7].
Our findings show that the more parents have high education level, the more youths’ motivations increase. These differences are more important especially in status, skill development, and energy release and team atmosphere. These results are the complement of the pervious and future researches. By study of 81 footballers (12-year-old) and their parents’ feedbacks, Gershgoren, Tenenbaum, Gershgoren, and Eklund (2011) showed that when their parents used the feedback based-on task-oriented, their internal motivation climate (mastery) increased significantly. When the parents used the feedback based-on ego orientated, the youth footballers’ external motivation climate (performance) increased significantly [11].
Based on the findings, it seems that the parents’ high education level affects their children’s feedbacks in sport participating and also increases youths’ external and internal motivations. Using feedbacks based-on task-oriented, they provide some feedbacks for their children and therefore there will be the possibility of success and status. These feedbacks were seen in well-educated fathers. The well-educated fathers, because of achieving to high successes in education, have the same attitude to sport and make the success and status motivations in their children. While the well-educated mothers, probably, use feedbacks based-on task-oriented that increase the youths’ internal motivations (skill development and team atmosphere).
Also, we point out fathers’ more competitive and challenging morale to the mothers’ that based on this morale, the type of feedbacks that they make for their children makes competition, status and internal motivations. According to the aligning the recent findings with the pervious researches [23, 20, 2, 11, and 9], the importance of the family role and parents’ education level on motivation, capability and enjoying youth athletes’ sport participating will be appeared more and more. These evidences could provide some guidelines to sport managers to set and arrange some sport programs in youths’ leisure time.
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Information about the authors: Noshin Benar
[email protected] Guilan University of Iran P.O. Box 1841, Rasht, Iran. Mohsen Loghmani [email protected] Guilan University of Iran P.O. Box 1841, Rasht, Iran Came to edition 07.10.2012.
Информация об авторах: Ношин Бенар
[email protected] Университет Гилян, Рашт, Иран.
п/я 1841, Рашт, Иран. Мохсен Логхмани [email protected] Университет Гилян, Рашт, Иран.
п/я 1841, Рашт, Иран. Поступила в редакцию 07.10.2012г.
