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образования, в политике США разработали ряд стратегий: реформа образования «Гонка к вершине» (Race to the Top) и политика позитивной дискриминации.
Говори об образовании, так же нужно упомянуть и отношения, возникающие между учениками и преподавателями. Ученики позволяют себе обращаться в адрес преподавателя по имени, но ведут себя уважительно к старшим, что говорит о короткой дистанции и равноправии между ними. При этом каждый студент сам за себя. Они не работают как целый коллектив. Здесь проявляется неприкасаемость личного пространства. Если человеку нужна помощь, он сам найдет выход из ситуации. Так они проявляет свою независимость.
В отличие от других развивающихся стран, Китай является страной с высоким и быстро растущим уровнем грамотности населения.
Превосходя большинство азиатских стран по широте охвата населения базовым образованием, Китай заметно уступает им по относительному числу студентов. Ежегодно 12,5 миллионов выпускников школы не имеют возможности учиться дальше, и большинство из них поступают на работу, не проходя необходимого профессионально-технического обучения и подготовки. Огромную роль в повышении профессиональной грамотности и технической квалификации населения играют средства массовой информации, в том числе многочисленные образовательные программы телевидения.
Как и в любой другой стране, в Китае ценится образование, полученное за границей. Находясь за рубежом, китайские студенты неизменно привлекают внимание своей прилежностью и сравнительно высокой базовой подготовкой по таким предметам, как математика, физика, биология.
Вероятность добраться до более высоких ступеней образования для среднего китайца невелика - в результате эту возможность реализуют, лишь способные ученики. Поступление же в вуз -знаменательное событие для выпускника школы.
Еще одна особенность вузов Китая - значительное преобладание естественно-технических и прикладных специальностей. Таким образом, гуманитарии - относительно малая часть студенчества. Дело в том, что многие соседи Китая уже давно столкнулись с проблемой из-за перепроизводства политологов, юристов, журналистов и т.п. Многие выпускники с «престижными» профессиями оказываются без работы, пополняя ряды активной оппозиции и провоцируя молодежные и студенческие беспорядки. Поддержание существующей структуры вузовских специальностей в Китае продиктовано и соображениями экономии, а также стремлением в первую очередь получить инженеров, технологов, ученых естественнонаучного профиля.
Говоря о взаимоотношениях, необходимо отметить, что студенты очень вежливы по отношению к преподавателем, которые, в свою очередь, открыты в общении и готовы всегда помочь. Из-за своего менталитета китайские студенты всегда стремятся предложить свою помощь, а отказаться будет плохим тоном.
Таким образом, ценность и отбор содержания образования обусловлены необходимостью развития базовой культуры личности, включающей культуру жизненного самоопределения и культуру труда; политическую и экономико-правовую, духовную и физическую культуру; культуру межнационального и межличностного общения.
Список литературы:
1. Сердюк Ю.О. Менталитет китайцев // География, №8, 2003.
2. Никифоров О.В. Представления о ценности образования / Relga: Научно-культурологический журнал, №2 [124]б 2006. URL: http://www.relga.ru/Environ/WebObjects/tgu-www.woa/wa/Main?level1=main&level2=articles&textid=868
3. Боллигер, Ли К., Стил, Клод М. Битва за высшее образование - высокие ставки. URL: http://forum.polismi.com/index.php?/topic/3422-los-angeles-times
УДК 72.012
THE INFLUENCE OF ARCHITECTURE ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
Apeh Stanley Okwudili
student IMT ENUGU HND Abudja Abudja, Nigeria
Abstract: The article discusses the links between the design of the built environment and the ways people live. It is argued that human attitudes and tendency for social interaction can be intentionally influenced and directed through particular architectural patterns.
Key words: architectural patterns, social interaction.
Be it a house or a palace, library, temple or fortress, to historians there is no place like home, because few things last the way architecture does. Architectural structures have frequently survived catastrophes which have destroyed other types of evidence. For instance, when the forces of nature obliterate all human and written remains in a building, even when they eat away the façade and roof, the foundations are often preserved. Moreover, because the needs of housing tend to change constantly, there is an almost continual call for new construction so that enough buildings are erected or rebuilt during every age to frame and highlight the manner in which a society has evolved.
There has been a long-standing thread of recognition that the way people live their lives is directly linked to the designed environments in which they live.
Architecture has always been the physical evidence of the narrative of a society - it both reflects and defines cultural identity. That is why the history of civilization is itself largely a study of human settlements. What occurred outside of cities has for the most part been lost over time, lacking as it does the great buildings so common in densely inhabited areas and on which our knowledge of history depends to a large extent. Instead, our vision of what-really-happened-in-the-past centers on the history of cities for the most part, and since a metropolis is often remembered for the buildings it contains—think of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Colosseum in Rome, the Empire State Building in New York City—the structuring of space becomes an important factor in the assessment of a civilization's growth and development.
Architecture can communicate memory, but it can also communicate values and a sense of place. For instance, early Western religious structures exhibit a general evolution toward more intricate and meaningful interiors, reflecting not only improvements in technical skills but also a growing interest in "inner spaces", the spirit over the body. You may find that much Chinese ancient architecture is often composed of small yards. Instead of pursuing the over-dimensioned architecture such as western cathedrals, Chinese ancient people designed housings fit human dimensions so that they may feel intimate and safe, and this idea reflects the practical thinking in Chinese culture. Thus, buildings are not just brick and marble but windows into the soul.
Winston Churchill, when addressing the English Architectural Association in 1924, mentioned, "There is no doubt about the influence of architecture and structure upon human character and action. We make our buildings and afterwards they make us. They regulate the course of our lives." In designing and constructing environments in which people live and work, architects and planners are necessarily involved in influencing human behaviour. Whether the explicit intention to influence behaviour drives the design process - architectural determinism [1] - or whether the behaviour consequences of design decisions are only revealed and considered as part of a post-occupancy evaluation [2], there are links between the design of the built environment and our behaviour, both individually and socially.
Where there is an explicit intention to influence behaviour, the intended behaviours could relate, for example, to directing people for strategic reasons, or providing a particular 'experience', or for health and safety reasons, but they are often focused on influencing social interaction. Hillier et al. [3, 233] find that "spatial layout in itself generates a field of probabilistic encounter, with structural properties that vary with the syntax of the layout." Ittelson et al. [4, 358] suggest that "All buildings imply at least some form of social activity stemming from both their intended function and the random encounters they may generate. The arrangement of partitions, rooms, doors, windows, and hallways serves to encourage or hinder
communication and, to this extent, affects social interaction. This can occur at any number of levels and the designer is clearly in control to the degree that he plans the contact points and lanes of access where people come together. He might also, although with perhaps less assurance, decide on the desirability of such contact."
Following the influence of Christopher Alexander [5], [6], such intentions may be expressed architecturally in terms of patterns, which describe "a problem which occurs over and over again in our environment, and then describes the core of the solution to that problem, in such a way that you can use this solution a million times over, without ever doing it the same way twice" [6]. It is worth drawing out a few of the patterns which actually address influencing behaviour throught architecture.
Summaries of a few of Alexander et al's patterns [6] which specifically address influencing behaviour, simplified into 'ends' and 'means'.
1) Activity nodes.
"End": To "create concentrations of people in a community"
"Means": "Facilities must be grouped densely round very small public squares which can function as nodes—with all pedestrian movement in the community organized to pass through these nodes".
2) Main gateways.
"End": To influence inhabitants of a part of a town to identify it as a distinct entity
"Means": "Mark every boundary in the city which has important human meaning—the boundary of a building cluster, a neighborhood, a precinct—by great gateways where the major entering paths cross the boundary"
3) Connected play.
"End": To "support the formation of spontaneous play groups" for children
"Means": "Lay out common land, paths, gardens and bridges so that groups of at least 64 households are connected by a swath of land that does not cross traffic. Establish this land as the connected play space for the children in these households"
4) Farmhouse kitchen.
"End": To help "all the members of the family... to accept, fully, the fact that taking care of themselves by cooking is as much a part of life as taking care of themselves by eating"
"Means": "Make the kitchen bigger than usual, big enough to include the 'family room' space, and place it near the center of the commons, not so far back in the house as an ordinary kitchen. Make it large enough to hold a good table and chairs, some soft and some hard, with counters and stove and sink around the edge of the room; and make it a bright and comfortable room"
5) Small meeting rooms.
"End": To encourage smaller group meetings, which encourage people to contribute and make their point of view heard.
"Means": "Make at least 70 per cent of all meeting rooms really small - for 12 people or less. Locate them in the most public parts of the building, evenly scattered among the workplaces."
The physical arrangement of elements can be broken down into different aspects of positioning and layout - putting elements in particular places to encourage or discourage people's interaction with them, putting them in people's way to prevent access to somewhere, putting them either side of people to channel or direct them in a particular way, splitting elements up or combining them so that they can be used by different numbers of people at once [7]. The layouts of shops, hotels, and theme parks, especially larger developments where there is scope to plan more ambitiously, can also make use of multiple aspects of positioning and layout to influence and control shoppers' paths. For example, Stenebo [8] discusses IKEA's carefully planned (and continually refined) "fairyland of adventures" which routes visitors through the store; Shearing and Stenning [9] examine how Disney World embeds "control strategies in both environmental features and structural relations," many to do with positioning of physical features.
Changes in material properties can involve drawing attention to particular behaviour (e.g. rumble strips on a road to encourage drivers to slow down), or making it more or less comfortable to do an activity (fast food restaurants use hard chairs that quickly grow uncomfortable so that customers rapidly turn over).
So, practically, most architectural patterns for influencing behaviour involve, in one way or another, the physical arrangement of building elements - inside or outside - or a change in material properties. In each
case, there is the possibility of changing people's perceptions of what behaviour is possible or appropriate, and the possibility of actually forcing some behaviour to occur or not occur. Architecture is not just about creating buildings that are new, functional and attractive - it promises that a new environment will change people's behaviours and attitudes.
References:
1. Broady, M. 'Social Theory in Architectural Design' in Gutman, R. (ed.), People and Buildings. Basic Books, 1966.
2. Zeisel, J. Inquiry by Design (rev. ed.). W.W. Norton, 2006.
3. Hillier, W.R.G., Hanson, J. and Peponis, J. Syntactic Analysis of Settlements'. Architecture et Comportement / Architecture and Behaviour, 3 (3), 1987, p. 217-231.
4. Ittelson, W.H., Proshansky, H.M, Rivlin, L.G. and Winkel, G.H. An Introduction to Environmental Psychology. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1974.
5. Alexander, C. The Timeless Way of Building. Oxford University Press, 1979. 6. Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S., Silverstein, M., Jacobson, M., Fiksdahl-King, I. and Angel, S. A Pattern Language. Oxford University Press, 1977.
7. Lockton, D., Harrison, D., Stanton, N. Design with Intent: Persuasive Technology in a Wider Context / Persuasive Technology, 2008. P. 274-278
8. Stenebo, J. The Truth About IKEA. Gibson Square, 2010.
9. Shearing, C.D. and Stenning, P.C. 'From the Panopticon to Disney World: the Development of Discipline' in Doob, A.N. and Greenspan, E.L. (eds.) Perspectives in Criminal Law: Essays in Honour of John LL.J. Edwards, Canada Law Book, 1984. P.335-349.
