CC BY
301UDC 808.5:378
SPEECH CULTURE OR COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE: CONTENT ASPECT
G.G. Plotnikova
Department of Humanities and Socio-economic Disciplines, Institute of Modern Technology and the Economy (Krasnodar, Russian Federation). E-mail: tvslovobest@gmail.com
Abstract. The article introduces the analysis of the notion "speech culture" in subjective, objective and gnoceological meaning. The culture of speech is a basis for development of general human culture, whereas the communicative competence is formed in the process of a professional training of a specialist and is a systematic development of knowledge, skills, abilities and personal qualities, which enable to successfully solve functional tasks in professional activity.
Keywords: culture of speech; competence; competence-based approach; communicative competence; "Russian language and culture of speech".
"Speech culture" as a scientific discipline started to form in Russian Philology from the 20s of the XX century. Before that time the main cycle of humanitarian and linguistic knowledge of educational profile in Russia was connected with rhetoric. We can suppose that introduction of another nomination was due to the change of social status of all sectors of society. In the post revolutionary period a new cultural-ideological civilization has been created. It had a new content of philological disciplines and currents in Russian speech investigation: foundation of alive word Institution, analysis of speech practice of A.V. Mirtov, V. Gofman, B. Kazantsev, V.V. Vinogradov, scientific discipline "Speech culture". Initially the concept "speech culture" had persinaficative undertone and anthropological orientation, it was considered to be the basis for the development of human general culture. The idea of the standard has become a central concept of the new linguistic discipline together with corresponding requirements to the usage of linguistic means.
During each historical epoch standard is a complicated phenomenon, so it exists in rather complicated conditions. V.I. Chernishov wrote about it: "There is much unclear in the language of each epoch for the contemporaries: composing but not composed, dying but not extinct, appearing but not stabilized" [1: 453]. Contemporary investigators tell the same: "Linguistic standard in its dynamic aspect is a socially-historically conditioned result of speech activity" [2: 43]. Literary standard is characterized by stability, degree of usage of the linguistic phenomenon and correspondence to the authoritative sources of information (more often they represent works written by famous writers, oral speeches made by famous public speakers and fig-
ures). So, on the one hand, cultural standard is identified by the inner laws of language development. On the other hand, standard is caused by the cultural traditions of the society, things adopted and secured by the society and those which the society fights with and condemns. Language standard is made up of the established generally accepted rules of pronunciation, word usage, traditionally used grammatical, stylistic, orphoepical and other linguistic means.
But "speech culture" cannot be limited by the correctness. It includes other aspects too. For its more precise specification and concretization we should refer to G.O. Vinokur's investigations: "The concept of speech culture can be explained in two ways depending on having only correct speech or skillful and sharp" [3: 3]. That idea divides it into two stages of speech culture-correctness of speech and art of speech. G.O. Viunokur was the first to express that idea in 1967. Another communicative aspect of speech culture found its expression in that definition which is closely connected with linguistic regularities in general. Developing his law about speech culture B.N. Golovin [4] pointed three significant meanings: subjective, objective and gnoceological. Subjective meaning is totality of knowledge, skills and abilities providing not difficult structure of linguistic expressions for optimal communicational tasks. Objective meaning is totality and a system of features and qualities of speech speaking about its perfection. Gnoceological meaning is an area of linguistic knowledge, a subject about a system of communicative qualities of speech. Totality of knowledge, skills and speech abilities speech culture is defined as "a choice and organization of linguistic means which in a definite communicational situation fulfills special contemporary linguistic standards and ethics of communication make it possible to provide maximum effect in reaching of the formulated communicative task" [5: 16]. That definition shows one more aspect of "speech culture", ethic, which can be considered as concretization of standardized and communicative towards speech behavior in concrete communicative situation. In reality it is communicational etiquette but when following its standards it's necessary to pay attention to social status of the member of communication, his age, character of relations, time and place of speech interaction.
Then we'll consider the objective meaning of the definition "speech culture" which means a set of definite qualities of speech which under the condition of literary standard observance influence the addressee in definite conditions and set task. Let's characterize each of them coming from the ideas of contemporary linguistics and rhetoric (Y.V. Rozhdestvensky, M.R. Lvov, L.K. Grudina, N.V. Bogdanjva, L.A. Verbitskaya, V.V. Kolesov, E.N. Shi-riaev, T.A. Ladizhenskaya, D.E. Rozental and others).
An important communicative quality of speech is its richness. A qualitative - quantative aspect of speech richness (diversity) lies in the following: the more different and recognizable by the reader's or listener's mind lin-
guistic signs are on the same "speech square", on the same linguistic space [4: 208] the richer and diverse the speech is. There are also structural-linguistic conditions providing speech richness: a great volume of active vocabulary, variety of used morphological forms and syntactic constructions.
An essential feature of a good speech is its accuracy which is understood as the usage of words in total correspondence to their linguistic meaning, strict correspondence of words to the phenomena of reality. At the communicative level speech accuracy is not only correct but optimal word usage: a choice of such linguistic means which best of all give the essence of expression, depict its topic and the main idea or give the depicted situation adequately. To reach such precision or accuracy of speech it is necessary to use synonymics. To evaluate the choice of linguistic means it is necessary to imagine the communicative task.
As it is known, word semantic being includes the whole big world of images described by the word and speech, concepts and the whole world of ideas and images born from outer textual combinations-between the lines and between the words. Musical being of the word, speech melody include all sound structure of the word and speech: all musical rhythms, euphony, timbres, tones, musical dynamic, accentuation, sound duration. Sound expressiveness of speech is included as well. Speech melody increases its influence on the listener. Even the most prosaic, informational text is unthinkable without melodious element, it becomes intolerable and its essence isn't accepted by the listener. Sound means in Russian language are diverse. L.V. Sherba [6] proved that the most powerful means of expression between the words and groups of words is "intonation", in its widest meaning. M.M. Bahtin notes that "Intonation always lies on the boarder of verbal and not verbal, pronounced and not pronounced. In intonation the word directly touches life. First of all, the speaker touches the listener with his intonation: intonation is social (predominantly)" [7: 78]. In its wide sense intonation is defined as a unity of interconnected components: melody, intensity, duration, speech tempo an pronunciation timbre (tone). Expressiveness depends on the brightness of vision, perspective of idea, activity of action but intonation is able to increase inner activity. Not only ideas fight during speech interactivity but intonations as well.
The next important communicative quality of speech is its purity, absence of strange to literary language elements. It's difficult to understand speech full of introductory words, words - parasites "well", "so...", "then...", "as if.". Words-parasites show the lack of lexical units, lack of confidence how to understand the matter of speech or the lack of knowledge about it or partially decrease the responsibility for what is said, because it introduces the uncertainty element, "diffusiveness" into the idea of the text. Formal (official) words also make speech perception harder: they are used in formal documents as a stamp or pattern. K.I. Chukovsky [8] considered that
not strengthened ideas used automatically do not need formal stamps. He thought that they present a dangerous illness of Russian language. Particularly language has enough destructive elements defiling its purity, for example, vulgarisms and slang and some others.
Speech consistency is revealed at the level of statement (text) and is based on the logical thinking, inductive and deductive forms. Thinking and speech are genetically and functionally independent and connected realities. A word, being a language and speech unit, indicating an integrated object or phenomenon, comes out as an act of thinking. The word meaning serves as an object analyses, making generalization and sign abstracting, connecting unit between the language and speech, possible. So the word becomes a weapon of thinking and word meaning becomes its result of speech and thinking unity. According to S.L. Rubinstein's [9] opinion word meaning is not a passive reflection of an object. It is defined through the function of that object in the system of human activity, it's a cognitive reflection of human consciousness to the object mediated by public relations among people. Speech consistency is an ability to put down the thoughts sequentially, logically, with arguments: it characterizes the speech on the basis of connection with reality. Logic can be objective when speech is characterized from the point of correspondence of semantic connections and relations of language units and objects relations in reality. Conceptual logic is connected with observance of main logical laws (identity, nonex-cluded contradiction, excluded third sufficient foundation)speech in this case is a reflexion of the idea structure in its development manifested in semantic connections of language elements.
So, we have considered subjective and objective meanings of "speech culture". In its gnoceological aspect "speech culture" is a special area of linguistic knowledge, a scientific discipline containing definite units, subunits and rules devoted to that field of linguistics. The most important things of speech culture as a special linguistic discipline are:
a) a problem of literary standard with its theoretical and culturological interpretation;
b) a regulative aspect providing support, protection and security to Russian language from bad destructive influences.
"Russian language and speech culture" discipline is studied at the higher educational institutions as a constituent part of the humanitarian discipline cycle devoted to the students of all specialties. The course is oriented for more profound studies of general idea of standards of contemporary Russian literary language and aimed at practical skills mastering using it as means of professional communication taking into consideration necessary knowledge about culture of Russian professional and business communication for more effective communication. That's why the course mastering assumes formation of studentls ability for speech activity demanding availa-
bility of Thesaurus conceptual system and understanding of definite thinking type making it possible to solve arising problems and tasks in concrete professional area (economists, politicians, marketologists, teachers, doctors and so on). That approach must give orientation to the teachers to develop student's skills of professional communication which is understood by E.I. Golovanova [10] as communication within professional field, by A.I. Kapterev [11] as a process of arising of mutual understanding in the definite subject area, by V.A. Minkina [12] as a process of exchanging information between specialists. As a result of the course study the student must be able to realize his / her communicative intentions using Russian language means in oral and written communication in the spheres which are connected with future professional activity and handle genres of oral and written speech necessary for free professional communication. So, the main attention in methodic and technology of study should be paid to initial study of theory and practice of communication as a specific form of people interaction, passing information from person to person in professional area which is performed with the help of the language (code-system of encoding and decoding of information). Secondly, attention should be paid to mastering and learning of professional communication language. That language is a multi-vendor having several struts: terminology, professional vocabulary, professional slang words, stock-list. The main body of the language of professional communication is terminology, concentrating the main features and language properties. Terms serve as the main means of conceptual orientation in cognitive-communicative area, set the direction of intellectual activity of specialists. They serve at the same time a reference point of thinking and activity. Thirdly, it helps to form and develop speech skill. In the Big Explanatory Dictionary skill is explained as ability, procession of profession, working practices, trade [13]. So, specialist speech skill (as a subjective meaning of speech culture) will be revealed in the choice and organizing of linguistic means which during professional communication under contemporary linguistic standards and communication ethic can provide the highest effect to reach professional goals.
Introduction competent approach into educational practice is connected with its format of formal description of man-professional qualities. The time of competence birth is considered 1970s of the XX century when American Government Department applied to the Consulting Company to employ junior staff for diplomatic informational service. The history of the concept "competence" and principles of key model of competence construction we can find in the article written by V.I. Lupandin and A.S. Mashkova "Formation of the competence model for administrative-management staff' [14]. The ability of a person to manage professional duties successfully, to solve professional tasks means that he / she is ready to do that not only because he / she has necessary skills, but because he / she wants to do that pro-
fessionally and wants to improve his / her skills. Orientation to professional self-realization and self - improvement is characteristic to the competent specialist. Therefore, specialist's motivation becomes an important and key factor of personality professional orientation.
Competence as a new born formation of subject activity is formed in the process of professional training and represents a systematic knowledge, skills, abilities and personal qualities which allow to solve functional tasks in professional activity successfully. Being an active personality representation during activity competence is characterized by mobile readiness to realize obtained professional competence by personality in any situation. We should differentiate the concept "competence" and "competentness": an ability reflecting necessary standards of behavior" is competence, but "competent-ness" is an ability to mobilize and actualize your competence to solve real professional tasks, and "ability necessary for working tasks solution and for getting necessary results of work" [15: 23].
Let's denote some peculiarities of the mentioned above concepts:
- social request of professional area;
- competence structure includes not only traditional results of education (knowledge, skills) but social-psychological component (motivational, behavioral, evaluational-conceptual, emotionally-willful);
- optimal list of competences from the point of view of lack of избыточности and complete group availability for reaching educational goals;
- allows to describe the result of preparation and diagnose competence creation on the basis of definite describing features;
- formation of competences and their stage by stage control during educational process;
- as a major competence indicator is correspondence of the level of individual results of training to the society and employer expectations.
One more peculiarity is understanding by the specialist of his competence as his ability to solve arising professional tasks taking into consideration social consequences of his actions. G.L. Ilyin presents an extract from the World Bank report: "In Russian education there is an accent on the usage of main categories taken from engineering: heat transfer, energy, resistance and so on. The main problem is if it works within restrictions put by market external factors referring to the engineering. The most important components of educational plans of western engineering schools include nature protection standards, author's law, marketing, consumer request, expenditure, efficiency and potential profit. The western engineer is supposed to evaluate the mentioned criteria before making a conclusion "if it works or not" [16: 43]. Such concept needs different ideas about contemporary society and its educational tasks.
When we analyze the definition "competence" we differentiate the note "skills" and "competence". Skills mean a wide range of acquired in the process of education and development opportunities, saved by people to
solve different tasks in life. Skills and opportunities are very important resources brought for example by managers into their work, but they are connected with concrete activity or professional functions. Competence means absolute ability to fulfill a concrete work in accordance with authorized standards. For example, manager's activity is constantly connected with getting and transferring of information to different people (owners, supervisors, clients, partners, deliverers). Manager should reveal such skills as:
- active back communication, efficiency and mobility of informational exchange;
- structuring of difficult information;
- usage of semantic informational modeling instruments;
- workflow and management recording;
- team instruction and control;
- information mobility while choosing ways of information transferring and channels of communication taking corporative standards into account.
Thus, competence (having necessary skills, abilities and capabilities) is closely connected with satisfactory subscribed roles and solving of concrete tasks. Definition of competence includes a combination of skills and abilities, knowledge and capabilities necessary for successful fulfillment of those concrete roles and tasks. For managers information control is a central part of their professional activity, they pay the major part of their time for the work with information. In the process of taking effective managing decisions connected straightly with management of people including the whole staff and management communication. Managers' important task is constant collection of actual managing information, its interpretation and analysis in the context of strategic positions formulated according to the stage of management development. So, every manager, firstly, is a manager in the area of information because he deals with collecting, analyzing data and information taking decisions accordingly and transferring information. An area of his professional competence includes:
- knowledge of content and types of information necessary for organizations and managers, for their efficient activity;
- knowledge of types of interpretation and transformation of different types of information within informational streams;
- ability to identify valuable information for efficient management and others.
Hence, we can assume that manager's responsibility and competence is revealed in selective approach to the informational skillful usage of it in management activity, in ability to establish business relationships, to start contact with the partner during professional communication, understand the colleagues (bosses and subordinates) adequately, negotiate. "External area" makes structure of economic relations more difficult, diversification of in-
dustry, widening of inter cultural relationships dictate the necessity communicative competence formation which is identified by the aim and labor character and becomes the leading chain in the structure of personal-business qualities of the manager and integral leading part in his real performing of his professional duties.
We are examining competence and "competentness" of the manager as necessary parts of the global strategy for personal and professional individual formation. The choice of the type, quantity and level of competence formation depends on the direction of specialist preparation and from enterprises where that specialist will demonstrate, develop and enrich his competence. Notwithstanding differences between competences (noted by educational and professional standards), they could be combined into one nomenclature, for example, managing, projective, innovational, economic, informational, ecological or judicial.
According to the European qualification frame competence includes:
1) Cognitive competence using the theory and such concepts as "hidden" knowledge acquired during experience.
2) Functional competence (skills and know-how) what a man must be able to do in the labor sphere during education or social activity.
3) Personal competence based on behavior and concrete situation.
4) Ethic competence based on definite personal and professional values.
That definition should include communicative competence because
communication serves the other part of human life. At the same time it depends from that activity (orient in choosing profession) and help individuals to join definite activity.
In scientific literature competence is defined as:
- ability of the speaker to choose situation relevant form of knowledge presentation, interpretation of events or facts, take part in indirect speech activity and use un literal expressions [5];
- ability of a person to take and fulfill different social roles, adapt in social groups and situations, use verbal and nonverbal means of communication freely [17];
- a system of internal resources necessary to do effective communication within a definite range of situations of interpersonal interconnection [18].
That's why we can suppose that socially-psychologically (professional-personal) communicational competence is a complete universal personal characteristics. Direction and position of and personality towards the society culture, culture of language and professional activity as a whole are of major importance in it. The essence of communicative competence is a difficult complex of qualities and personal relationships. It is revealed in the choice and organization of linguistic means which if you follow standards of literary language, ethic of communication and know professional speech nuisances in definite situations of business communication allow personality to
solve professional tasks. The content of communicational competence is revealed in the unity of:
a) requirement-motivational component (requirement, motives, direction);
b) cognitive component( professional knowledge);
c) emotional-valuable component (responsibility for the result);
d) activity component (skills, abilities, experience).
Requirement-motivational component reflects the degree of perception of personal and professional communication meaning of the national language and speech culture (foreign language) by the subject; a degree of interest while improving of standard communicative, ethic and rhetoric aspects of speech culture; a degree of requirement in professional language development. Cognitive component reflects volume and efficiency of knowledge about management information development usage (essence, properties and characteristics); about standard, communicative, ethic and rhetoric aspects of speech culture at the angle of professional activity; vocabulary of the subject of communication. Emotional-valuable component of manager's communicative activity is a reflection of recognition of commu-nicational value of the language and speech culture, bright personal involvement into everything contained in profession, expression of positive emotional sensual experience in the process of professional activity. Activity component of communicative competence is readiness and possession of verbal and nonverbal means of speech adequately reflecting reality and corresponding to the idea of speech; possession of speech style adequate to professional situation; ability to find ways of organization of structural language elements and abilities to use speech for influence; observance of language and communicative standards of speech ethic.
Functional filling of components is rational to use by concretiza-tion of communicative goal. Communicative goal is general target origin, target plan or project which defines, identifies the whole speech subject behavior during professional communication and in its separate phrases (whole monologues in speech). Communicative goal of the specialist mediated by labor sphere fixed in professional standards giving indicators which allow to set a degree of correspondent activity performed by the worker and represent a number of characteristics in the form of knowledge and skills of how a person must do and what he must know for that. Descriptors are described by concrete set of typical professional criteria characteristic to the activity performed by the person within concrete profession. The essence of professional standard is in its content is not brought from external area, it is hidden in professional activity. A unit of professional standard represents a labor function identical to concrete personal competence represented in structure; professional activity knowledge and skills and personal qualities.
As we mentioned before the accent is made to the authorized list of competences (professional and general cultural ones) and transformation of them into desired results. The authorized list of competences must describe activities represented by the set of knowledge and skills necessary at the definite working place in detail. That's why the formation of communicative knowledge, skills and abilities happen the context of integrated system of indicators: knowledge, skills and capabilities, formed in the process of training and adapted in practical experience. For example, according to professional standard "Management of organization" it is reasonable to form the following competences: motivate teams for activity; demonstrate qualities of a leader; ability to work in a team, psychological skills; wide thinking; protect enterprise interests; oral and written communications; prevent and solve conflicts and so on. These competences suppose formation of such communicative knowledge like principles, technologies and ethic of business communication, principles, methods and instruments, technologies of interaction, negotiating with the owners and other interested sides and ability to negotiate and perform consultations and presentations.
The process of managers training supposes acquiring of systematized communicative knowledge, skills and abilities and their practical appliance. While developing methodic of training it is necessary to choose methods and technologies of heuristic and problematic training: investigation of concrete situations, individual exercises and exercises in groups to improve speech technique, modeling of business situations, project making, interactive trainings, role and business games. Each technology can be supported by the model of training according the following algorithm:
1. Theoretical understanding of communication principles which make it possible to set the fundament of special skills.
2. Examples which give the participants the opportunity to value the efficiency of communicative skills usage.
3. Steps connected with realization of communicative skills.
4. Practical usage of communicative skills.
5. Self-evaluation during which the participants form concrete goals which help them learn key knowledge.
Thus having examined the content of the concepts "speech culture", "competence", "competentness", "communicational; competence" we can make the following conclusions:
1. Introduction of the concept "speech culture" was due to the Russian society social-political transformation, changing of socio-cultural status of all society layers. Initially the concept had anthropological direction, considered as the basis for personal general culture development, how it is revealed in speech behavior in the language of Literature, in the ability to use art treasures. Culture in that definition is the first demand to speech. It can be found in the verbal encyclopedias. "High speech culture supposes
high level general culture, conscious love to the language, thinking culture. The top of the speech culture, its standard and "starting point" of phenomena realized as a standard, is a literary language where all cultural traditions of the nation, achievements of masters of speech are fixed and saved like in the treasury" [19: 19].
2. Concepts "competence" and "competentness" are also revealed in the result of the answer for the challenge of the Western society, firstly, from the labor market side. Nowadays leading companies and governmental departments formulate their demands to the staff using the language of competence. Development of so called "competence models" (describing demands to different categories of the staff-to top managers, managers and administrative personnel and others) is an integral part of management. Opposite to the "speech culture" "communicative competence" is formed in the process of professional training and represents a systematical manifestation of knowledge, skills and abilities and personal qualities which allow to solve functional tasks in professional activity successfully. That 1s why these concepts shouldn't be considered synonymous. In educational practice formation of competent specialist is a goal, but competences are considered as a new type of goal setting in educational systems. Competence-based approach in education allows to describe results of training (preparation) and diagnose formation of competences on the basis of definite features-descriptors and form a definite level of competence and step by step control in the process of training.
3. Limitations of competence building approach are connected with its format of formal professional qualities description. As any formalization competence building approach has not full quality description, that's why together with competence-based approach at the concrete scientific level of research we should apply to culturological approach to try to understand personal culture as value and personal qualities description on the basis of social-valuable organizationally acceptable value orientation.
4. Communicative competence (together with cognitive, personal, functional and activity) are considered by us as an integral and universal personal characteristics. Spiritual basis of personality is objectively socio-cultural experience of the concrete society: historically formed ideals and value views, moral principles of behavior, cultural traditions of the nation, core meaning of communicative competence and position of personality are directed to the culture of the society, language culture and professional speech activity in general. The essence of communicative competence is a complex of qualities and personal properties and it is revealed in the choice of linguistic means which if they follow the standard of literary language, communication ethic and specific professional speech in a definite situation of business communication allows to take optimal decisions and solve professional tasks. The content of communicative competence is revealed in the
unity of the required-motivational, cognitive, emotional valuable and activity components. Emotionally valuable component of communicative competence of a manager is a reflection of the awareness of national language and speech culture (foreign language), value by the communicating subject, bright personal involvement into everything which is contained in profession, expressions of positive emotional-sensual experience in the process of professional activity.
Realization of technologies and methods of training can be done within the framework of educational disciplines: "Russian Language and speech culture", "Ethic of business relationships", "Business communication", and at practical training disciplines of professional cycle.
Literature
1. CHERNISHOV, V.I., 1970. Purity and correctness of Russian speech, 1. Moscow,
pp. 443-640.
2. SKVORTSOV, L.I., 1980. Theoretical basis of speech culture. Moscow: Science Publ.,
352 p.
3. VINOKUR, G.O., 1967. From discussion about speech culture, 3. Russian speech Publ.,
pp. 10-14.
4. GOLOVIN, B.N., 1988. Basis of speech culture. Textbook for students, spec. "Russian
language and literature", 2nd ed. corrected. Moscow: Higher school Publ., 320 p.
5. GRAUDINA, L.K., and SHIRIAEV, E.N., 2003. Culture of Russian Speech. Textbook for students. Moscow: Norm publ., 560 p.
6. SHERBA, L.V., 1979. Language. System and speech activity. Moscow: Art Publ., 424 p.
7. BAHTIN, M.M., 1974. Aesthetic of verbal art. Moscow: Art publishing house, 424 p.
8. CHUKOVSKY, K.I., 2009. Alive like life. About Russian language, AST Publ., Zebra E, 304 p.
9. RUBINSTEIN, S.L., 2002. Basis of general psychology. Saint-Petersburg: SPB Publ.,
720 p.
10. GOLOVANOVA, E.I., 2004. Linguistic interpretation of the term: cognitive-communicative approach. Izvestia Ural State University Publ., 33, pp. 18-25.
11. KAPTEREV, A.I., 2004. Informatization of sociocultural area. Moscow: Fair-Press Publ., 512 p.
12. BREZHNEVA, V.V. and MINKINA V.A., 2004. Informational servicing: goods and services provided by libraries and informational enterprises. Saint-Petersburg: Profession Publishing house, 304 p.
13. KUZNETSOV, S. (Chief Ed.), 1998. Big Explanatory Dictionary of Russian language. 1st ed., Saint-Petersburg: Norint Publishing house, Aurthors edition of 2009. URL: http//www.gramota.ru (used: 07.10.2013).
14. LUPANDIN, V.I. and MASHKOVA, A.S., 2011. Formation of competence model for administrative staff. Izvestia of Ural Federal University, S. 1: Problems of education, science and culture, 3, pp. 154-161.
15. WIDET, S. and HOLLYFORD, S., 2003. Competence maintenance instruction: translation from English. Moscow: NGPPO Publishing house, 224 p.
16. ILYIN, G.L., 2009. Changes in Russian education according to Bologne process (subjective notes), 8. Higher Education in Russia Publ., pp. 40-48.
17. EMELIANOV, Yu.N., 1985. Active social-psychological training. Leningrad: LSU Publ., 168 p.
18. STOLYARENKO, L.D., 2001. Basis of psychology. Rostov-on-Don: Phenix Publishing house, 665 p.
19. Russian language: Encyclopedia, 1979. Moscow, 432 p.
