CC BY
13
Damir Mukhetdinov,
Ph.D. (Political sciences), First deputy chairman of the Spiritual Council of Muslims of the Russian Federation, member of the Council for interaction with religious associations under the President of the Russian Federation RUSSIAN MUSLIMS: CALL FOR CONCEPTUALIZATION AND CONTEXTUALIZATION (Conclusion)
3. Islam and Ethnicity
What are Russian Muslims? Does this ethnocultural and ethnoconfessional reality exist? And if it does, what are its specific features?
I think we have to start with the question of the correlation of Islam as universal religious teaching, on the one hand, and on the other, to ethnicity and the existing forms of everyday life, thinking and world outlook typical of a concrete people.
From the point of view of Islam, ethnicity does not play a positive role. Islam is outside ethnicity, this is why it is not important what people a person belongs to, the main thing is his or her affiliation with the ummah. Historically, it can be said that Islam has adapted to the local conditions of everyday life.
Another possible solution to the problem of the correlation of Islam to ethnicity is the assertion that there is only one dominant and authentic ethnicity with which Islam is connected, that is, the ethnicity of the Prophet and his closest companions - Arab ethnicity. It follows from this premise that the norms of Arab culture are correct and adequate to Islamic teaching, and all others are erroneous.
Of course, one should not deny Islam's connections with Arab ethnicity, suffice it to say that the Koran has been bestowed in Arabic and its linguistic origin and affiliation is very important for all Muslims; besides, during the first centuries the Islamic tradition had developed precisely in Arab society, and the legal schools so important to us had been formed in it, and bear the imprint of that historical period and that society. Taking into account the above-said we cannot but see that beginning from the seventh century and up to the present time Arab culture (or Arab cultures) had passed through a long evolution. Islam had become widespread on territories which had not been occupied or controlled by the Arabs; for many centuries it has existed on these territories more or less independently, under the influence of different cultures, not only Arab. In my view, the thesis that Islam has been preserved in the Arab world in a "more pure form" is not quite evident. There are no grounds to believe that the Tatar, Bashkir or Chechen practice of Islam is worse or less authentic than the Arab. This is a subjective assessment, which depends, first and foremost, on a concrete tradition. It seems to me that one of the major tasks facing Russian Muslims is to show, with the help of historical and religious analysis, that Russian Muslims represent an original practice of Islam, which has its cultural, philosophical, social and daily specific features.
Historically speaking, beginning from the seventh century Islam has not existed in isolation from concrete culture, and getting on to
a new soil it gives original sprouts, forming local ways and means of Islamic practice. I think that one of the reasons why the question about "Russian Muslims" is now put to the fore lies in the conceptual crisis of the Russian Muslim ummah. And this crisis can partly be explained by the difficult "socialist past," pressure on the part of geopolitical rivals, shortage of enlightened Muslim intellectuals, etc.
I do not place ethnicity higher than Islam, as it might seem from first glance. Islam is above ethnicity, and the main thing, as I have said, is affiliation to the ummah, which is confirmed by the Koran.
A question arises of the significance of the Muslim ummah. It is known that at the early stages the ummah had been polyethnic. The Koran says that the ummah is the best of all communities. The real ummah does not overcome ethnicity, ethnicity can be overcome at spiritual level. There is no contradiction between affiliation to the real ummah and recognition of one's own ethnicity. The road to spiritual unity lies only in ethnicity. The Koran does not teach that one should be ashamed of one's own ethnicity or refuse from it.
4. Russian Muslims: Social Reality
Russian Muslims can be perceived in two ways. On the one hand, they are a group of citizens believing in Islam and observing traditional practices of Islam. On the other hand, Russian Muslims can be viewed as a concept, a result of perception of the social, cultural and spiritual reality, which has been formed in Russia under the influence of Islam; such perception also takes into account geopolitical, civilizational and ideological tendencies with which this reality is closely connected. In other words, Russian Muslims should be viewed as a social reality, on the one hand, and on the other, as a concept. This article is centered on the second interpretation of Russian Muslims, and at the same time, being a result of perception and conceptualization it
can assume different conceptual forms in the minds of different thinkers. I admit that there can be alternative ways of perceiving Russian Muslims, and this is why I would like to regard my attempt as just one of several variants.
In order to discuss a concept seriously, it is necessary to recognize traditional Russian Muslims as a social reality. I think there can be no other opinion. Islam came to the Eurasian area in the seventh century and since then it has been embraced in this region by many peoples in the most diverse cultural conditions. For a long time Russian Muslims have combined traditions of local people, influence of other Islamic cultures (above all, Arab, Turkish and Persian), mutual exchange with Slav and Finno-Ugric peoples, influence of European education (as a rule, through Russian education). No other area inhabited by Muslims can boast such broad and fruitful cultural exchanges. As a result, in the latter half of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century we had a unique social reality and a unique type of Muslim education and enlightenment, which differed from Arab, Turkish or Persian, playing one of the leading roles in the world agenda. Critics may claim that such eclecticism can muddy the Message of the Prophet. I think that such puritan criticism does not take into account the specific features of traditional society and the place of religion in it. In traditional society Islam penetrates all spheres of life -architecture, music, the language, beliefs, clothes, everyday life, etc., as a result of which old customs and habits which had non-Muslim meaning are redefined and filled with a new meaning connected with the Message of the Prophet. Traditional culture which is centered on Islam becomes purely Muslim culture at all levels. It is not accidental that experts speak of "Tatar-Muslim culture," "Tatar-Muslim identity," etc. In the consciousness of a representative of traditional society any sphere of life is inseparable from the dominant type
of spirituality, from religion. It would be appropriate to cite the words of the outstanding Tatar enlightener of the 19th century Husain Fazkhan: "The Muslim places religion above all else, and there is nothing which he would not sacrifice to it."
Thus, Russian Muslims as a social reality cannot be disregarded, and they require the most thorough analysis. Such reflection is closely connected with the study of national cultures of certain Muslim peoples, inasmuch as the main sources of vital meanings in traditional society is the dominant spiritual tradition.
Russian Muslim culture includes a number of ecumenes (North Caucasian, Volga area, Crimean, and others), which have considerable original features. Along with Islamization of traditional society all its spheres acquire new Muslim meanings and therefore become part of Islam. Tatar Muslim culture is a case in point. There are the following typological specific features of Tatar practice of Islam:
The Message of the Prophet has been adopted by the Tatars voluntarily, which reflects their striving for Truth; this striving permeates the spiritual life of the Tatars throughout centuries.
There are no deviations and heresies in the spiritual life of the Tatars and they are inclined to moderation.
Women enjoy a higher social status in Tatarstan.
The Tatars are distinguished by high literacy.
Their religious views are stable even in emigration.
The Muslim clergy are elected, and there are traditions of collective self-government.
Tatar Muslims priests and believers are tolerant and able to coexist with representatives of other faiths.
Tatars are stable emotionally and reserved in behavior.
There are two main threats to traditional Tatar Muslims: European evolutionist theories and reformist trends within Islam.
Evolutionism and progressism were overcome at the philosophical level in Europe already at the beginning of the 20th century. Tatar intellectuals appealing to the "development" of society and the inevitable dying away of religiousness are late by at least one hundred years. There is a trend toward desecularization of society in the present situation. Another force aimed at uprooting traditional Islam is reformist trends.
Examining the specific features of the Tatar practice of Islam and threats to it at present, one can make a conclusion that Tatar spirituality is original and interesting and has outgrown the framework of provincialism. The potential of Tatar Islam is quite great.
There is a vast material about Tatar Muslim practice in specialized research works.
Tatar Muslim culture has been formed over many centuries, and it has a number of specific features. They should not be viewed as something alien to Islam, which integrates them in itself. We now need to reflect over our own tradition in order to prevent the erosion of Muslim practice. It should be admitted with profound regret that propaganda of certain forms of Islam alien to us sponges on the ignorance of Russian Muslims themselves concerning their own tradition.
Russian Muslims in a broad sense include the North Caucasian, Bashkir and Crimean Tatar ecumenes. Each one of them needs examination and comprehension, and in that case only shall we be able to find a point of contact between them and determine their inter-Eurasian civilizational ties, which would contribute to the formation of an image of Russian Muslims.
5. Russian Muslims: Concept
As I have said, it is evident that Russian Muslims are a conglomerate of interconnected traditional cultures and religious practices, and it exists, first and foremost, as a social reality. In this sense Russian Muslims differ from Arab, Iranian and African Muslims, and also from American and European Muslims, who are growing stronger.
The concept of Russian Muslims is an answer to the question about how these Muslims can survive in the present conditions without losing their identity.
In order to create a full-fledged concept of Russian Muslims it is necessary to solve three tasks. First, there should be a profound reflection and understanding concerning individual cultural ecumenes existing on the territory of the Russian Federation. (I touched on this subject in the previous section, while speaking of Tatar culture). Secondly, it is necessary to determine the civilizational unity of these cultural formations and see where the forms of their spirituality intersect. Thirdly, we should see the strategic unity of Russian Muslims, bring their civilizational unity to an intercivilizational level, and tie it to a more general global context. The latter may be determined as the conceptualization of Russian Muslims, and this step is the most important, in my view, inasmuch as it deals with the preservation of Russian Muslim traditions. This is a strategic glance into the future, and an attempt to anticipate the situation on which our future largely depends.
The formation of a new civilizational alignment is the most crucial aspect geopolitically and ideologically. The Eurasian orientation of the Kremlin elite shows that Russia has taken the course aimed at taking the place of an independent pole with a unique value paradigm. Russian Muslims face three variants of their existence at the
present stage: to move along the general ideological trend and develop their own traditions on this basis; to orient themselves to Islamic civilization and accept its influence; to orient themselves to European civilization, "European values," atheism, non-religiousness, in short, to renounce their own spiritual heritage.
As a patriotically-minded citizen of the Russian Federation I think that the first variant is the most adequate. Naturally, Russian Muslims should not break away from traditional Muslim traditions. However, it would be a grave mistake to borrow reformist trends, ignoring one's own many-century religiousness. I think, the optimal variant would be to preserve one's own tradition, adapt it to the modern way of life, develop education, and use the achievements of Europe and Middle Eastern countries. Such cautious position toward our own tradition is only possible within the framework of Eurasian civilization and those trends, which have been formulated by world religions.
It is interesting that the Russian political elite, President Putin, above all, in explaining the reasons for dissociation with the ultraliberal European values often refer to Muslim peoples. Many Russian citizens think within the framework of a conservative paradigm, but it is quite evident for me that Russian Muslims are the nucleus of Russian conservatism.
Secondly, Russian Muslims have a many-century experience of peaceful coexistence with representatives of other religions. Although the history of relations between the Russian state and Muslim nations is not too serene, as it is often described, yet, comparing it to the experience of other civilizations, it can be asserted that the model of coexistence evolved in the Russian Empire was one of the most pluralistic and it gave broad opportunities to the practice of Islam (I don't take the Soviet period, inasmuch as during that totally atheistic epoch all religions suffered a great deal). As I have mentioned, Tatar
Muslims have always been distinguished by a desire for peaceful coexistence. During the present period of the global crisis of identity and spirituality, coexistence and interaction with other religions acquire a new meaning - it is a struggle for moral conservatism and for the preservation of legitimate religiousness as such.
Thirdly, Russian Muslim are characterized by moderation, they are able to combine the modern way of life and thinking with Islamic principles. Russian Muslims are not "hyper-ascetic," they do not call for seclusion and they do not curse technical achievements of civilization and European education. Due to their flexibility and temperance they are able to imbibe everything best, which modern civilization can give. However, they firmly adhere to the ethical principles given us by the Prophet, and in contrast to many cases registered among European Muslims, never compromise. The moderate traditionalism of Russian Muslims serves as an example of harmonious combination of spirituality, adherence to tradition and conservatism, on the one hand, and on the other, ability to accept innovations, education and technical progress, if they do not contradict general spiritual foundations.
In these three spheres Russian Muslims correspond to the Eurasian model, and our task is to tie Muslim strategy more tightly with general civilizational strategy, and to include the former in the latter. We have to give a profound substantiation to these ties so that the thesis of Russian traditional Muslims become an element of Eurasian strategy. In any other instance there is a danger of marginalization and confrontation.
I would like to touch another problem, one of spiritual unity. An important element of the concept of Russian Muslims is the idea about the interconnection of spiritual practices in different Muslim ecumenes (Tatar, Bashkir, Chechen, and others), as well as between Islam and
other religious traditions (Orthodox Christianity, Judaism and Buddhism). I think that Orthodox Christians, Judaists and Buddhists within the framework of Eurasian civilization are connected not only by their belonging to one state, but also by their centuries-long living close to one another, and mutual penetration at an everyday-life and cultural level. In other words, there is a unique area of spirituality characterizing Eurasian civilization.
In one of his speeches President Putin said: "You know, we have Eastern, or Orthodox, Christianity. Certain theorists of Christianity assert that it is closer to Islam than, say, to Catholicism. I shall not say whether this assertion is just, but on the whole, coexistence of these basic religions has been going on for many centuries. And we have evolved a definite culture and pattern of interaction over these centuries. We have to remember these roots."
Russian Muslim culture could unite pre-Muslim customs, elements of Arab, Persian and Turkish education and enlightenment, and in a later period European education and enlightenment. There are no examples of such all-round synthesis among other Muslim cultures. The boundless Eurasian area had given birth to a rich Eurasian soul, which feels capable to contain almost all humanity. This was a subject for profound thinking of outstanding Russian philosophers (V. Solovyov), historians (I. Kireyevsky), and writers (F. Dostoyevsky).
6. Challenges to Russian Muslims
There are several global challenges to Russian Muslims as a social reality: radicalization (under the influence of geopolitical rivals), Islamophobia, attempts to suppress Islam by force, and the problem of integration of immigrants. All these challenges are rooted in definite ideologies.
7. Russian Identity - Shift of Emphases?
I am sure that we now face the need to perceive the concept of Russian Muslims. On the one hand, they are a socio-cultural reality taking shape over many centuries, and on the other, a result of reflection over this reality, and a concept. In a socio-cultural light, Russian Muslims have a considerable specificity: Tatar Muslim culture is distinguished with tolerance, peaceableness, high status of woman, drive for education, democratism, special forms of Sufi practice, and unique literary tradition. Similar specific features can be found among other peoples living in Russia.
The concept of Russian Muslims should unite different socio-cultural realities on a uniform civilizational basis. With due account of the existing neo-Eurasian trend such basis includes anti-globalism, protection of traditional values, traditional multiculturalism, and moderate conservatism. Russian Muslims as the most conservative section of society can make a weighty contribution to all these three fields. Interaction with other major religions on the territory of the Russian Federation is of special importance. Apart from strategic unity in the struggle against Euro-Atlantism, there is special unity in world outlook.
There is a global challenge not only to Russian Muslims, but to the civilizational identity of Russia. The point is the so-called European values, actually, ultraliberalism. Modern ultraliberalism brings the thesis of emancipation of the human ego to the logical end. Marginalization of religiousness and spirituality, dictatorship of minorities, erosion of gender identity, destruction of the traditional family, virtualization of reality and all and sundry post-humanistic projects are the greatest evil for all religious people as a whole, and for Muslims, in particular. Neo-Eurasianism has a worthy answer to this evil in the form of the concept of traditional values and support of
traditional religions. However, it's going to be a prolonged struggle, and its outcome cannot be forejudged as yet.
I think that Russian Muslims are ready to take an active social position and participate in creating the image of Eurasian civilization of a conservative type. With due account of demographic tendencies, this means the inclusion of Islam in the sphere of legitimate discourse and its ideological legitimation. Unfortunately, for centuries Russian Muslims had not played any major role in the formation of the ideological agenda in Russia. Prior to 1917 Orthodox Christian identity ruled the roost. Then came the domination of Soviet identity, which at first had been sort of international, but later it began to resemble the prerevolutionary model. Since the 1990s Russia has been living through a crisis of identity.
What Russian (or Eurasian) identity should be to enable Muslims to feel comfortable as part of it? The answer to this question has already been given in the neo-Eurasian proto-ideology of the Kremlin elite. The emerging Russian identity combines adherence to multipolarity, traditional values, traditional multiculturalism, and moderate conservatism. In such situation the Russian Muslims could feel and regard themselves active participants in the process of creating Russian (Eurasian) identity. This will mean for them devotion to patriotism, democratism, traditional values, national and all-Russian culture, etc., which will reduce the danger of radicalization sponsored and fanned by our geopolitical rivals from the outside.
In conclusion, I would like to turn to the idea expressed by Ismail Bei Gasprinsky in his well-known article written in 1881. Writing about the specific nature of relations between Rus and the Golden Horde, he expressed the following view: "As to Tatar domination we should consider the fact that it could, perhaps, preserve Rus from stronger alien influence and contributed to the elaboration of the idea of the unity
of Rus, which was first materialized on the Kulikovo Field." He also emphasized that Tatars helped "preserve" Russian spiritual culture, which could not be expected from the Catholic crusaders coming from the West.
There is another advantage of the presence of Russian Muslims within the framework of Russian (Eurasian) civilization. Apart from the unique historical combination among Russian Muslims of European, Russian, national and Arab-Persian-Turkish education, there is the preservation of one's own traditions which have not been subjected to dogmatic reforms. Observing the present-day processes in the Middle East, one involuntarily stops and ponders over what would have happened to Tatars, Bashkirs, Chechens and other Muslim peoples if they had not been part of the Russian Federation. What would have happened to our Muslim traditions?
We have lived through difficult periods of mutual relations with the Russian state and succeeded to preserve pure Islam of the Prophet. And now, in the conditions of modern ideological trends we have broad vistas for the development of our own traditions and joint work with representatives of other religions for the benefit of our Motherland and the whole of mankind. And who knows, perhaps, the dream of Ismail Bei Gasprinsky about Russian Muslims standing at the head of the intellectual development and culture of other Muslims in the world will come true.
References
1.A. Armanyan. Putin mezhdu borboi za mir, Svyatoi Rusyu i gomofobiei // Islam v sovremennom mire [Putin between the Struggle for Peace, Sacred Rus and Homophobia // Islam in the Modern World]. Issue 2 (34), 2014, pp. 24-25.
2. G. Brandt. Filosofskaya antropologiya feminizma [Philosophical Anthropology of Feminism]. - St. Petersburg, 2006.
3. I.B. Gasprinsky. Russkoye musulmanstvo (sut dzhadidizma) [Russian Muslims (Essence of Jadidism)]. - Simferopol, 1881.
4. A. Dugin. Postfilosofiya. Tri paradigmy v istorii mysli [Post-philosophy. Three Paradigms in the History of Thought]. - Moscow, 2008.
5. A. Dugin. Teoriya mnogopolyarnogo mira [Theory of Multipolar World]. -Moscow, 2013.
6. I. Zherebkina. Postmodernism, posikhoanaliz, feminiszm [Postmodernism, Psychoanalysis, Feminism]. - Moscow, 2000.
7. I. Zherebkina. Subyektivnost i gender. Gendernaya teoriya sub'ekta v sovremennoi filosofskoi antropologii [Subjectivity and Gender. Gender Theory of the Subject in Modern Philosophical Anthropology]. - St. Petersburg, 2007.
8. I. Ilyin. O russkoi ideye [About the Russian Idea]. Selected articles. - Moscow, 1993, pp. 318-327.
9. R. Kravchenko. Demograficheskaya situatsiya v Rossii [Demographic Situation in Russia] // http.//rusrand.ru/forecast/demograficheskaya-situatsij a-v-rossii
10. R. Mukhametshin. Islam v Srednem Povolzhye: Istoriya i sovremennost [Islam in the Middle Volga Area: History and Our Time]. - Kazan, 2001.
11. V. Putin. Valdaiskaya rech [Valdai Speech] (2013) // http://www.kremlin.ru/ news/19243
12. M. Orenstein. Zapadniye soyuzniki Putina: pochemu evropeiuskiye praviye na storone Kremlya? [Western Allies of Putin: Why Are the European Right-wing Elements on the Side of the Kremlin?] http://sputnikipogrom.com/europe/10367/ putins-western-allies/#.VHypqTGsUkw
13. A. Sibgatullina. Religiozno-sufiiskiy motivy v tatarskoi literature //Islam v Srednem Povolzhye: Istoriya i sovremennost [Religious-Sufi Motives in Tatar Literature // Islam in the Middle Volga Area: History and Our Time]. - Kazan, 2001, pp. 497-515.
14. L. Syukiyainen. Prava cheloveka v dialoge islamskoi i zapadnoi pravovykh kultur [Human Rights in a Dialogue of Islamic and Western Legal Cultures]. Yearbook of Islamic Philosophy. No 2, 2011, pp. 266-298.
12. F. Fukuyama. The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstruction of Social Order. Free Press, 1999.
16. Global Trends 2025 - Global Trends 2025. A Transformed World // http:// www.aicpa. org/research/cpahorizonss2025/globalforces/downloadabledocuments/globaltrends.pdf
17. J.M. Hobson. The Eurocentric Conception of World Politics. Western International Theory, 1760-2010. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
18. NHDR 2008 - National Human Development Report Russian Federation 2008. Russia Facing Demographic Challenges, 2009 // http://www.unndp.ru/ documents/ NHDR_2008_Eng pdf
19. PEW 2011 - The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Projections for 2010 -2030. PEW Research Center, Forum on Religion and Public Life, 2011 // http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religions_Affiliation/Muslim/Futu reGlobalMuslimPopulation-webPDF-Feb10pdf
This article has been presented by the author for publication in the bulletin "Russia and the Moslem World".
