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УДК 167
РЕВОЛЮЦИЯ, ЖЕНЩИНЫ И ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКАЯ СОВРЕМЕННОСТЬ
Amina Ali Mire
PhD Sociology, Professor Carleton University, Department of Sociology and Anthropology
В данной краткой работе автором были подвергнуты анализу некоторые глубинные исторические корни и современные ограничения, которые способствуют хронической недопред-ставленности женщин в науке, технике и смежных областях (STEM-области) на Западе; автор объясняет почему аналогичные тенденции не наблюдались в социалистических странах, таких как бывшие республики Советского Союза. Исследователи соотнесли хроническую недопред-ставленность женщин в STEM-области с «Протекающим трубопроводом». В качестве аналитического инструмента «дырявый трубопровод» стремится охватить связь низкого уровня зачисления и более высоких показателей отсева среди женщин в STEM-области на Западе. Следует признать ложными обычно используемые на Западе теории биологического детерминизма для объяснения феномена «протекающего трубопровода». Имеющиеся открытые данные по проблеме STEM-области и тендеру не показывают никакой корреляции между тендером и успешностью в STEM-области. Несмотря на отсутствие достоверных доказательств, подтверждающих связь между полом и успехом в области STEM, на Западе, в целом, доминирующий подход к исследованию «протекающего трубопровода» был сосредоточен на развенчании или укреплении предполагаемой связи между биологическим детерминизмом и STEM-областью.
Ключевые слова: революция, женщина, технологическая современность, биологический детерминизм, «протекающий трубопровод».
REVOLUTION, WOMEN AND TECHNOLOGICAL MODERNITY
Amina Ali Mire
PhD Sociology, Professor Carleton University, Department of Sociology and Anthropology
In this brief intervention I outline some of the deeper historical roots and contemporary constraints which contribute to the chronic underrepresentation of women in science, technology and related STEM fields in West and why similar trends did not exist in socialist countries such as the former Soviet Union Republics. Researchers have termed this chronic underrepresentation of women in the STEM fields as the Leaky Pipeline. As an analytic tool, the Leaky Pipeline seeks to capture the combination of low-level enrolments and higher rates of drop outs amongst women in the STEM fields of study and practice in the West. In the West spurious theories such as biological determinism are used as the cause of the leaky pipeline. However, widely available data in STEM and Gender show no correlation between gender and rate of success in the STEM fields. Despite lack of credible evidence to back up ay association between gender and success in the STEM fields, in West, by and large, the dominant approach to the investigation of the Leaky pipeline focused on debunking, or reinforcing, supposed link between biological determinism and STEM.
Keywords: Revolution, Women, Technological Modernity, Biological Determinism, Leaky Pipeline.
According biological determinism, sex and gender difference shape one's psychological behaviour, brain structure and cognitive abilities [Ingalhalikar et al, 2014; Rippon, 2016]. Biological determinism claims that there is a causal link between the structure of the brain, the sex of the individual and one's ability in mastering abstract and complex concepts such as three dimensional geometry. It claims that, on average, man's brain is highly lateralized and conducive to mathematical thinking whereas average woman's brain is highly diffuse and symmetrical, which makes woman's brain more conducive to studying languages and memorization [Ingalhalikar et al, 2014]. Critics of this approach have convincingly revealed how evolutionary biological and neurosciences promulgate false ideology
that innate biological differences between the brain structure of man and woman account for the reasons men dominate the STEM fields in the West [Holt; 2016; Merritt,2017; Rippon, 2016]. Challenging evolutionary biological sexism in STEM is critically important because if men have greater advantage in spatial/visualization cognitive capabilities, there should have been universally similar patterns of low enrollments and higher rates dropping out of women in the STEM fields. However, no such data exists. For example, in Russia, women make up 43% of all researchers and professionals in the STEM fields [Tass, 2018].
However, despite strong critiques against biological determinism, the Leaky Pipeline still remains as a sociological puzzle in the West. One of the ways to unlock this puzzle is to closely examine the lasting effects of Western philosophical foundation. The Western philosophical foundations did not start with abstract universal propositions but with crude apriori presupposition of biological difference between man and woman as the necessary condition of "rationally" ordered social organization in capitalist societies [Keller, 1985, p. 45]. As a result, in the West, by the middle of the nineteenth century, women were systematically removed from the skilled crafts and small trades they once dominated [Lown, 1990; Keller, 1985]. Secondly, women's role in society had been redefined and reduced to the private sphere of domesticity. Third, new philosophical and medical discourses were developed to back up the claim that women were incapable of coping with the stresses and strains of 'technological modernity' [Henning, 1999, p.17; Kelly, 1985, p.53]. Thus, gendered division of labour in the Western society has its roots in biological determinism which shaped Western capitalist social, political and economic organizational structures. It also shaped capitalist patterns of education and pedagogical practices. Today, western political leaders, corporate executive, and educators are asking how to entice and retain women in the STEM fields [Thomson, 2018; Thon, 2016]. It is in this historical context that the contemporary phenomenon of the Leaky Pipeline in the STEM field among women should be traced back to the nineteenth century European age of Industrial Revolution which excluded women from participating in the public domain and in the paid workforce.
Revolutionary Changes and the Inclusion of Women in the 20th Century
In the modern era, mass inclusion of women in public life and access to advanced education in engineering and medicine started after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution [Eveleth, 2013]. The 1917 Bolshevik Revolution created drastic social changes in many areas, one of which was the cancellation of gender based segregated education which gave millions of women and girls access education and practices in science, technology and medicine. Inclusion of women in this revolutionary change was possible because Bolshevik Revolution was a class-based revolution of the people that sought to overturn rule of the ruling elite. The 1929 Soviet technophilic film, Man with Movie Camera, showed a visual representation of the socialist belief that technological revolution was an instrument which can be deployed in the service of achieving working-class power. In this context, the communists thought that inclusive access to science and technological education was the necessary means through which women could be incorporated into the working-class labour force under communism. As a result, the Soviet Union encouraged girls and women to enter in all fields in public life including education in science, mathematics, physics, engineering. Consequently, in the twentieth century, the Soviet education system produced millions of female scientists and engineers [Eveleth, 2013; Robert, 2010].
1957: "The Sputnik Moment" of the Cold War
1957 was critically important year because it was the year the Soviet Union launched the first unmanned satellite, Sputnik 1, to space. Between 1957-1964, Soviet technological breakthrough in space enabled the first Soviet dogs, the first Soviet man and the first woman to go to space. However, more than any other category in this list, it was the first Soviet woman in space, a "Russian Blonde in Space," which profoundly challenged the very foundation of U.S. capitalist propaganda against technologically superior but 'graceless' and 'mannish' proletariat Soviet wo manhood [Griswold, 2012]. As a result, Valentina Tereshekova "became a focal point for those in the United States calling to expand female opportunities outside the home" [Griswold, 2012, p. 2]. However, as we approach the end of the second decade of the twentieth first century, women in the West are still waiting for their successful entry to male dominated STEM fields. It is important to stress that the only time in the modern era when women made successful entry to science and technological fields, including engineering, was during the Soviet Union. The Soviet approach to the question of women's empowerment was part of the overall class struggle.
On other hand, despite strong feminist pressure, women in the West are still waiting for their inclusion in technological modernity under capitalism. Sadly, there are strong evidence that the post-Soviet Russia and ex-Soviet Republics are also showing signs of women steadily leaking out from the STEM field [Robert, 2010]. Limitation of space does not allow me to further explicate the capitalist roots of the Leaky Pipeline. However, suffice to say that femininity and the female sex are not the causes of the leaky pipeline. In fact, embracing femininity can be one of the best ways to overcome the leaky pipeline. This is because femininity is still considered the cause of female "vulnerability" to the stresses of technological modernity and this false belief is the leading cause of the leaky pipeline in the STEM fields in the West.
Литература
1. Eveleth, R. (2013). Soviet Russia Had a Better Record of Training Women in STEM Than America Does Today. The Smithsonian Institution. Retried from
http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/smartnews/2013/12/soviet-russia-had-a-better-record-of-training-women-in-stem-than-america-does-today/
2. Griswold, L. R. (2012). "Russian Blonde in Space»: Soviet Women in the American Imagination, 1950-1965. Journal of Social History, 45(4), 881-907.
3. Henning, M. (1999). 'Don't touch me (I'm electric)': On gender and sensation in modernity. In J. Arthurs and J. Grimshaw (Eds.), Women's Bodies: Discipline and Transgression (pp. 17-47). London: Cassell.
4. Hewlett, S. A., Luce, C.B., Servon, L.J., Shiller, P., Sherbin, L., Eytan Sosnovich, E. & Sumberg, K. (2008). The Athena Factor: Reversing the Brain Drain in Science, Engineering, and Technology. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/product/the-athena-factor-reversing-the-brain-drain-in-science-engineering-and-technology/10094-PDF-ENG.
5. Holt, N. (2016). How Sexism Held Back Space Exploration: America's early aerospace engineers ignored computers because they considered programming to be women's work. The Atlantic Magazine (June). Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/06/how-sexism-held-back-space-exploration/486644/?utm_source=atlfb.
6. Ingalhalikara, M, et al. (2013). Sex differences in the structural connectome of the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States (PNAS). Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/! 1/27/1316909110.abstract.
7. Keller. F. E. (1985). Reflections on Gender and Science. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
8. Lown, J. (1990). Women and Industrialization: Gender and Work in Nineteenth-Century England. Oxford: Polity Press.
9. Merritt, T. (2017). Sex matters: Male bias in the lab is bad science. The Conversion (July 31). Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/sex-matters-male-bias-in-the-lab-is-bad-science-80715
10. Rippon, G. (2016). How 'neurosexism' is holding back gender equality - and science itself. The Conversion (October,27). Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/how-neurosexism-is-holding-back-gender-equality-and-science-itself-67597
11. Robert, R. (2010). Why Aren't There More Women Engineers? Paris Innovation Review (September,).Retrieved from http://parisinnovationreview.com/articles-en/why-arent-there-more-women-engineers
12. Tass: Russian News Agency (2018). Women make up 43% of researchers in Russia vs 29% worldwide. Retrieved from http://tass.com/science/1022487?_ga=2.144810612.1501945004.1537459677-1978479920.1537459677
13. Thomson, R. (2018). How we can turn the tide for women in science. The Conversion (October 9). Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/how-we-can-turn-the-tide-for-women-in-science-104477
14. Thon, J. (2012). The good, the bad and the ugly of gender bias in academic science. UA/AU (University Affairs). Retrieved from http://www.universityaffairs.ca/the-black-hole/the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly-of-gender-bias-in-academic-science/
15. Vertov, D. (1929). A Man With A Movie Camera. Rvision. Retried from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cGYZ5847FiI.
16. Zarya, V. (2016). The Reason So Many Women Leave Engineering Has Nothing to Do With Kids. Fortune Magazine (August, 24). Retrieved from http://fortune.com/2016/08/24/women-leave-engineering/?xid=for_fb_sh.
УДК 371(47)
КОГДА НАЧАЛАСЬ КУЛЬТУРНАЯ РЕВОЛЮЦИЯ? ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ И ОБЩЕСТВО В ПОСЛЕДНИЕ ДЕСЯТИЛЕТИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ИМПЕРИИ
Андрей Леонидович Андреев
Доктор философских наук, заведующий кафедрой истории и философии Всероссийский государственный институт кинематографии имени С.А. Герасимова Научно-исследовательский университет «МЭИ»
Статья посвящена вопросу об истоках культурной революции в России. В противоположность широко распространенной точке зрения, согласно которой культурная революция была продолжением Октябрьской революции и прихода к власти большевиков, автор доказывает, что истоки культурной революции надо искать в 1880-е годы, когда в широких слоях населения, в том числе крестьянства, стали формироваться и проявляться новые образовательные и культурные запросы. Автор рассматривает социальные последствия данного процесса и его влияние на общество. В итоге последовавших за отменой крепостного права четырех - пяти десятилетий модернизации, которая для разных социально-демографических групп шла с разными скоростями, относительно простая социальная структура дореформенного российского общества значительно усложнилась. При этом социальные различия становились не только многообразнее - они еще и приобретали некую специфическую многомерность, а противоречия между социальными группами и слоями обострялись. В этом контексте рассматривается
