CC BY
14REGULATION OF LABOR MIGRATION PROCESSES (EXPERIENCE OF
TURKEY)
Kadirova Zulaykho Abduhalimovna
Tashkent state university of oriental studies Phd, associate professor, Head of the Department of Foreign Economic Activity and Tourism kzulayho@gmail.com Gazieva Sulkhiya Saidmashrafovna Tashkent state university of oriental studies, Phd student
sulya @mail.ru
Abstract. This article discusses the migration processes of Turkey. The regulation of labor migration in Turkey was considered. Turkey's labor migration statistics were studied. The regulation of immigration and emigration processes was studied. Today, the Republic of Turkey, one of the most active participants in the international labor market, is one of the countries with such experience. The geographical location of the Republic of Turkey at the crossroads of Asia, Europe and Africa, one of the centers of both emigration, immigration and transit migration, has created favorable conditions for the formation and development of migration processes in the country.
Key words: international labor migration, foreign remittances, migrant workers, emigration policy, immigration policy, external labor migration processes.
Aннотация. В данной статье рассматриваются миграционные процессы Турции. Рассмотрено регулирование трудовой миграции в Турции. Изучена статистика трудовой миграции Турции. Изучено регулирование иммиграционных и эмиграционных процессов. Сегодня Турецкая Республика, один из самых активных участников международного рынка труда, является одной из стран с таким опытом. Географическое положение Турецкой Республики на стыке дорог Азии, Европы и Африки, один из центров как эмиграции, иммиграции, так и транзитной миграции, создало благоприятные условия для формирования и развития миграционных процессов в стране.
Ключевые слова: международная трудовая миграция, рабочие мигранты, иностранные денежные переводы, эмиграционная политика, иммиграционная политика, процессы внешней трудовой миграции.
Annotatsiya. Ushbu maqolada Turkiyaning migratsiya jarayonlari muhokama qilinadi. Turkiyada mehnat migratsiyasini tartibga solish masalasi ko'rib chiqildi. Turkiyaning mehnat migratsiyasi statistikasi o'rganildi. Immigratsiya va emigratsiya jarayonlarini tartibga solish o'rganildi. Bugungi kunda xalqaro mehnat bozorining eng faol ishtirokchilaridan biri bo'lgan Turkiya Respublikasi ham ana shunday tajribaga ega davlatlar sirasiga kiradi. Turkiya Respublikasining Osiyo, Yevropa va Afrika qit'alarining chorrahasida joylashgani, ham emigratsiya, ham immigratsiya, ham tranzit migratsiya markazlaridan biri bo'lganligi mamlakatda migratsiya jarayonlarining shakllanishi va rivojlanishi uchun qulay shart-sharoit yaratdi.
Kalit so'zlar: xalqaro mehnat migratsiyasi, xorijiy pul o'tkazmalari, mehnat migrantlari, emigratsiya siyosati, immigratsiya siyosati, tashqi mehnat migratsiya jarayonlari.
Introduction. The country's emigration policy is to ensure that Turkish citizens living abroad live and communicate with their families, meet their cultural and social needs, facilitate the re-migration of migrants, legalize migration processes, maintain regular contact with the Turkish diaspora abroad. improvement of the database, attracting remittances of migrants, development of Turkish entrepreneurship abroad, improvement of mechanisms for effective use of skills and abilities of Turkish labor migrants.
Literature review. Migration policy refers to a set of legislative documents, international agreements and social measures aimed at regulating migration flows in order to combat the factors that cause unwanted migration [1]. V. According to Bobylev, migration policy is a system of principles, goals and actions, with the help of which the state and other political entities regulate the flow of migrants [2]. L.L. Rybakovsky focused on the migration policy as a system of generally accepted ideas at the level of conceptually unified means, and emphasized that with their help, the state, as well as other state institutions, achieve the goal by observing certain principles [3]. In this regard, S.V. Ryazantsev also emphasizes that the migration policy is a system adopted at the level of ideas and conceptually integrated means, with the help of which the state, as well as its institutions, in compliance with the principles, envisages the achievement of goals corresponding to the next stage of the development of the society of the country [4].
Researchers T.A. Prudnikova, S.A. Egorova, S.A. According to Akimova, the regulation of migration is based on objectively determined goals, tasks, the system of development of social relations in the field of migration, the norms of legal documents on migration, as well as the subjects of the migration process (individuals, public organizations, state bodies) based on the principles of the constitutional system and the movement of individuals, they put forward the approach that it is a process aimed at its location and unification in the state territory and (or) its separate regions, provided with stimulating and controlling factors [5].
In turn, foreign scientists M. Giugni, F. Proponents also agree that migration policy belongs to the sphere of public administration and includes a decision-making process controlled by a competent government and governed by legal norms aimed at regulating migration processes [6]. According to them, the state migration policy is a conceptually integrated system of tools, with the help of which the state, as well as its public institutions, adhere to certain principles, and strive to achieve goals that correspond to the current and future stage of development of a given society.
These presented studies and views have important scientific, practical and methodological significance. Based on these, it is of great scientific importance to analyze the regulation of labor migration at the state, regional and international levels, to apply the economic factors of the regulation of migration processes based
on the nature of organizations and conventions that regulate migration processes at the international level and theories related to the regulation of international labor migration. In the article, we used theoretical and empirical methods of research. The article provides an analysis of recent research publications, compares the results with statistical data, and provides practical recommendations based on the survey results. The author's methodology uses a systematic approach, observation, comparison, abstraction, idealization and grouping methods. A graphical method was used to visualize the results of the study [7,8].
Research methodology. In the article, we used theoretical and empirical research methods. The article provides an analysis of the latest research publications, compares the obtained results with statistical data, and gives practical recommendations based on the results of the survey. The author's methodology used a systematic approach, observation, comparison, abstraction, idealization and grouping methods. A graphical method was used to visualize the research results.
Results and discussion. Migration processes in Turkey were initially carried out in the country in several stages over a period of 50 years.
Table 1
Stages of internal migration in Turkey1
Stages Features
The first stage. The first part of 19501960. In agriculture, the transition from labor-based technology to capital-based technology has led to "pushing" factors such as rural population growth and land scarcity, as well as urban labor shortages, poor working and living conditions, and poor quality education and health care. Migration from rural to urban areas has begun due to "attractive" factors. The share of urban population has reached 38%.
The second stage. 1960s the second half-late 1970s. The investment factor is one of the above factors. At the same time, large investments in transport, communications, education and health have led to their rapid development, with the share of the city's population reaching 44%.
The third stage. 1980-2000. Investments in ICT have led to the removal of any barriers to migration, and the share of urban population has reached 66%.
In the 1950s and 1980s, labor migration was supported in Turkey to alleviate the unemployment problem and help the national economy recover through remittances, and the country became a major labor exporter. Turkey has been active in the international labor market since World War II, Europe, the Persian Gulf in the 1970s, and the CIS since the 1990s.
Since 1961, in accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, the guarantee of the right of citizens to free movement abroad has created a legal basis for the expansion of mass labor migration in the country. Unemployment in rural areas during this period, especially hidden unemployment and high inflation in the country, as well as low wages, served as an internal factor in the formation of migration processes in the country. In turn, the growing demand for cheap labor in Western European countries to rebuild war-torn infrastructure and perform low-
1 Berker Ali. Labor market consequences of internal migration in Turkey//Economic Development and cultural change.Vol.60.No.1.Chicago. 2011.P. 203.
skilled work will be an external factor in shaping Turkish labor migration. The first five-year plan for economic development of the Republic of Turkey (1962-1967) also emphasizes the need to support the export of surplus labor, in which the governments of Germany, Belgium, Austria, the Netherlands, France , Signed agreements on labor migration with European countries such as Sweden and Switzerland.
External labor migration processes in Turkey have also taken place in several stages. In particular, since 1961, labor migration in the country has expanded, reaching its peak in 1964, and this year exported 66,000 workers.2. However, during the recession of 1966-1967, labor exports declined and only 9,000 of the 900,000 Turkish citizens queuing for work abroad were exported3. At the end of the recession, a new wave of mass labor migration began, and by that time the country would have exported 100,000 workers a year. Exports of such a large amount of labor from Turkey continued until the 1974 oil crisis affected the economies of European countries. In particular, between 1961 and 1974, a total of 790,000 workers were exported from the country to European countries4. 81% of them were exported to Germany, 7% to France, 5% to Austria and 3% to the Netherlands5. One-third of the emigrants came from the developed cities of Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir, some of whom were urban skilled workers and most of whom were low-skilled workers who emigrated from rural areas first to cities and then abroad.
After the 1970s, the introduction of science-based industrial production in Western Europe led to a decline in demand for low-skilled jobs. By this time, European countries had not only tightly controlled the entry of new labor migrants, but also encouraged their departure. In particular, according to the German law "On assistance in repatriation of foreigners" in 1983, for each migrant worker leaving the country 10.5 thousand marks, for each family member leaving with him 1 , 5 thousand marks, and a labor migrant leaving France was given 70-100 thousand francs. However, only a small number of Turkish labor migrants took advantage of this opportunity to return to their homeland. For example, the number of German citizens returning to Turkey was 200,000 6.
Many Turkish migrants have turned down such offers because they cannot earn the same amount of wages in Europe as they did in their homeland. Later, the number of Turkish emigrants in European countries continued to increase due to the recall of their family members by Turkish labor migrants abroad and the expansion of illegal migration.
The closure of the European "doors" to Turkish labor migrants after 1974 coincided with the opening of the "doors" of the Persian Gulf countries for them. The next wave of migration in Turkey was triggered by a sharp rise in oil prices in 1973. In particular, the implementation of new projects in Arab countries such as Iraq,
2Turkey Country and Research areas Report. Project Paper #5. P.24.
3 Turkey Country and Research areas Report. Project Paper #5. P.24.
4 Turkey Country and Research areas Report. Project Paper #5. P.83.
5 Turkey Country and Research areas Report. Project Paper #5. P.24.
6Большова Н. Германия: мигранты турецкого происхождения почти не вовлечены в политическую жизнь. Источник: Портал МГИМО. 16.08.13. http://www.mgimo.ru/news/experts/document240923.phtml
Libya, Saudi Arabia and the UAE in exchange for oil revenues has created the need to import labor from abroad. The labor force exported from Turkey to Arab countries was about 75,000 during 1975-1980 and 400,000 during 1980-1990. For comparison, in 1961-74, ie in the first wave of migration, 97.5% of Turkish citizens exported to European countries, while in 1981-1990, 97.7% of them. i fell to the Arab countries. But by the 1990s, declining demand for cheap labor in the Persian Gulf region had halved the number of Turkish labor migrants in those countries.
By the 1990s, the development of economic development programs in the CIS countries and the involvement of Turkish construction companies in it had triggered the next wave of external labor migration. In 1996-2000, 65,000 Turkish migrants and in 2001-2005, 90,000 Turkish migrants visited the CIS countries. Although the wave is not as large as previous waves, it attracted 60% of Turkish migrants between 1996 and 2000 and 50% between 2001 and 20057.
As of 2015, the number of Turkish citizens living abroad reached 2.9 million, which is 3.6% of the country's population. There are 2.5 million Turks in Europe, including 1.3 million in Germany, 110,000 in the United States, 100,000 in the Arab world, 46,000 in Kazakhstan and 40,000 in Australia8.
Today, Turkish citizens abroad can be divided into the following categories: 1) the Turkish Diaspora, consisting of Turkish labor migrants who emigrated abroad in 1960-1980; 2) Turkish refugees in European countries; 3) illegal Turkish immigrants temporarily residing abroad; 4) unskilled Turkish migrants working on a contract basis; 5) highly qualified Turkish labor migrants;
In this regard, referring to remittances, which are an important source of income for donor countries, remittances of Turkish workers in 1960-1970 accounted for the bulk of foreign exchange earnings in the country and contributed to the improvement of the balance of payments. did Foreign remittances amounted to $ 8.1 million in 1964, $ 273 million in 1970, and by 1974, they accounted for 90% of Turkey's exports9. In the aftermath of the 1973-1974 oil crisis, remittances from migrants declined.
Between 1964 and 2005, Germany, the largest recipient of Turkish citizens, sent a total of 47.5 billion euros to Turkey. During this period, capital inflows from Germany to the Turkish economy amounted to 17.8 billion euros, and foreign direct investment amounted to 4.2 billion euros.
Although foreign remittances have never accounted for more than 3.6% of Turkey's GDP, they have been an important source of trade deficit coverage 10.
7Большова Н. Германия: мигранты турецкого происхождения почти не вовлечены в политическую жизнь. Источник: Портал МГИМО. 16.08.13. http://www.mgimo.ru/news/experts/document240923.phtml 8Frangoise De Bel-Air. Migration Profile: Turkey// Migration policy centre. Issue 2016/09 December 2016. P.5. 9Akkoyunlu S.,Siliverstovs. B. The role of remitances in migration decesion: Evidence from Turkilsh Migration //Discussion Papers 691. Berlin: 2007.P.8.
10Turkey Country and Research areas Report.Project Paper #5/ P.32.
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Figure 1. Share of foreign remittances in GDP in Turkey,%n
Foreign remittances accounted for 50% of the trade deficit in the 1980s and only 35% in the 1990s. The decline in remittances since the 1980s can be explained by the decline in the number of Turkish immigrants, on the one hand, and the fact that the majority of Turkish citizens have acquired the right to permanent residence abroad due to family reunification. Migrant remittances have played an important role in mitigating the negative effects of the 1994 and 2001 economic crises in Turkey. it must be acknowledged that it is person-centered.
The Turkish government has tried to attract more remittances based on various preferential interest rates and special investment schemes. In particular, the government-established Workers 'Investment Bank ensured that migrants' remittances were included in various industrial projects, and that returning migrants were able to work in the enterprises in which they had invested. Members of specially formed cooperatives were among the first to be granted the right to work abroad on the condition that they spend the money they earned abroad on various commercial projects. Durable consumer goods brought in by migrant workers are partially exempt from customs duties.
Turkey ranked third among developing countries in terms of foreign remittances in the 1990s, second in 1995, fourth in 2000, and seventeenth in 2002. In
"World bank
2015, remittances to Turkey reached $ 1.4 billion and in 2020 $795 million.
5 4,5 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1
0,5 0
4,56
3,25
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
Figure 2. Personal remittances, received US dollars 12
It should be noted that Turkey's participation in the international labor market as an exporter of labor has significantly decreased in recent years. The country, one of the world's leading emigration centers, became one of the centers of immigration and transit migration in the mid-1990s. The idea that skilled Turkish labor migrants would stay in the EU on a temporary basis did not materialize, and in the first wave of migration, migrants who had gone abroad began to call in their family members. Therefore, by the 1980s, the Turkish government had begun efforts to eliminate dependence on labor exports and foreign remittances, which had been going on for nearly 20 years. The last time Turkey emigrated was between 1981 and 1990.
500 400 300 200 100 0 -100
0 6 9
5
6 9
9
9
5
00
9
0 9 9
9 9
0 0 0
5 0 0
22
Figure 3. Pure migration in Turkey, thousand people13
The annual decline in the number of Turkish immigrants since the 1990s can be attributed to the growth of the country's socio-economic life during this period. Economic reforms carried out by Turgut Ozal, who came to power in the early 1980s, such as privatization of state property, reduction of subsidies, liberalization of trade, reduction of price controls, and deregulation of interest rates, began to bear fruit. These reforms have improved the country's socio-economic situation and helped achieve economic growth of up to 10%14.
12World bank // http://data.worldbank.org/ 13 World bank // http://data.worldbank.org/
14-
Ilker Aslan. Demographic and economic impact of turkish labor migration to the EU.P. 12.
The country's economic potential and emerging liberal economic policies have thus encouraged foreign investors to create and develop promising projects. The plan to focus on an export-oriented free economy has boosted local production in the country, which in turn has led to a decline in the number of Turkish emigrants in recent years. In particular, in recent years, emigration from Turkey to Europe has begun to decline by 50-60 thousand people a year. Also during this period, the number of immigrants and re-immigrant Turkish citizens entering the country began to increase. Despite the destabilization of the country's economic situation in the 2000s, 250,000 people continued to enter Turkey annually as immigrants.15. Despite the current political turmoil in Turkey, the country's net migration reached 400,000 in 2015 16.
In particular, in 2014, 28,000 people entered Germany from Turkey alone, while this year 32,000 people left Germany for Turkey17.
Today, 1.5 million migrant workers of different qualifications and abilities work in Turkey, which has changed from an immigration center to an immigration center.
Table 2
Classification of labor migrants in the Republic of Turkey
Refugee labor migrants Refugees who fled the coup in the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979, refugees who fled the country due to the turbulent political situation in Iraq in 1988, 1990 and 1991, and their migrant workers
Non-permanent immigrants 1) Transit immigrants from Africa, Asia and the Middle East who emigrate to Europe via Turkey. 2) Non-permanent labor immigrants who have entered Turkey legally but whose stay in the country has expired.
Permanent immigrants who enter and leave the country legally. 1) Labor immigrants from the CIS countries, the Balkans and the Middle East. 2) EU citizens of Turkish origin who have renounced their Turkish citizenship 3) Indigenous peoples of the United States and the EU, including those who have the right to reside in Turkey, students, and retirees who own real estate in the country
Conclusions. In conclusion, the long-term economic reforms implemented by the Turkish government have made it possible to abandon the country's dependence on labor exports and foreign remittances. The reforms have contributed to the development of the country's processing industry and the expansion of exports of food, automobiles and durable goods. In addition to being self-sufficient in food, Turkey is one of the world's leading exporters of food products to Europe and the Middle East. In addition, the favorable investment climate in the country has led to the inflow of foreign investment in tourism, the development of the banking system and the modernization of the transport system. As a result, by the 1990s, Turkey was able to compete in the international services market. These opportunities have led to
15Secil Pacaci Elitok,Thomas Straubhaar.Turkey as a migration in the Middle East.Vol.13.No.2.2011.P.110.
16World bank // http://data.worldbank.org/
17Yasar Aydin. The Germany-Turkey migration corridor. Refitting policies for a transnational age. Washington DC. MPI.2016. P.11.
an increase in the country's position in the world economy. The favorable conditions have also created jobs, created competition among labor market participants, alleviated the unemployment problem and attracted foreign labor. Thus, the Republic of Turkey, which is recognized as a donor in the international labor market, also participates as a recipient country in the context of globalization.
Analyzing Turkey's experience in the field of labor migration, Uzbekistan also pays close attention to issues such as expanding domestic production, developing private entrepreneurship, tourism and construction, increasing the country's exports and investment attractiveness. We believe that these efforts will increase the efficiency of employment in the country and in the future even increase the likelihood that Uzbekistan will become a recipient center for neighboring Central Asian countries.
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