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Section 6. Psychology
https://doi.org/10.29013/ESR-20-3.4-31-39
Bede Chinonye Akpunne, Ph D., Senior Lecturer, Department of Behavioural Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, Redeemer's University, Nigeria
E-mail: akpunneb@run.edu.ng Daniel Oluwasanmi Kumuyi, Department of Behavioural Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, Redeemer's University, Nigeria
E-mail: kumuyidaniel@gmail.com Joshua Oludare Ogunsemi, Department of Behavioural Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, Redeemer's University, Nigeria.
E-mail: dareogunsemi@gmail.com Solomon Ojo,
Ph D., Senior Lecturer, Department of Human Resource Development,
Faculty of Management Sciences, Osun State University, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria.
E-mail: solomon.ojo@uniosun.edung
PEER VICTIMIZATION, SOCIAL MALADJUSTMENT AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS AMONG NIGERIAN ADOLESCENTS
Abstract. This study explored the links between Peer Victimization (PV), Psychological Distress (PD) and Social Maladjustment (SM) among Nigerian adolescents. A Multistage sampling technique was utilized to select 400 participants (Mean age = 14.95) from four secondary schools in Osun State Southwestern Nigeria. Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale (MPVS), Social Maladjustment Scale (SMS) and General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) were used for data collection. Prevalence of peer victimization, Psychological distress and social maladjustment is 46.5%; 47.7% and 44.0% respectively. Significant positive correlation exists between Verbal Victimization (VV), Social Manipulation (SoM), Multidimensional Peer Victimization (MPVS) and Social Maladjustment (SM). Significant positive correlation also exists between VV and Psychological Distress. MPVS subscales jointly predicted Psychological Distress and Social Maladjustment Scale (SMS).
Keywords: Peer victimization, psychological distress, social maladjustments, adolescents.
Introduction
Peer Victimization (PV) among children and young adults of school age has been reported to be on the increase and is identified as an important problem in school [1], and presents in many forms such as physical, verbal, relational, and cyber [1; 2; 3]. The prevalence rates of PV however vary across countries [4; 5].Peer victimization is one potentially modifiable risk factor linked to the development of psychological disorders. Peer victimization is a broad label encompassing multiple aspects of intentional harm doing including physical (e.g., hitting), verbal (e.g., name calling), and relational means (e.g., rejection, ostracism). Research suggests that peer victimization is pervasive across schools, cultures, and countries, with an estimated 10-30% of children reporting experiences of being bullied [6; 7; 8].
Research has reported associations between peer victimization and internalizing problems such as depression and anxiety and other related psychopatho-logical symptoms. For instance Hamilton, Connolly, Liu, Stange, Abramson and Alloy [9] found that hopelessness mediated the link between peer victimization and depression but only among adolescents with low future orientation. Also, victimized adolescents reported higher rejection sensitivity, greater loneliness and more depressive symptoms and had increased social anxiety risk [9]. Self-blame was studied by Chen and Graham [10] as well as by Perren, Ettekal and Ladd [11] and they reported that victimized adolescents often blamed themselves for what had happened, which contributed to their greater risk for maladjustment. Empirical researchers showed that self-harm, depressive symptoms, negative affect and alexithymia were positively associated with peer victimization [12; 13]. Victimized adolescents were also found to be angrier [14], lonelier and less likely to comply with school norms and had greater risk for violent behavior towards schoolmates [15] and less well able to regulate their emotions, which placed them at greater risk for aggressive behavior [16]. Explaining reasons why vic-
timized adolescents report greater risk of externalizing problems, Perren et. al. [11] reported that they were more likely to attribute the victimization event to hostile intentions in their peers, while You and Bellmore [17] found that victimized adolescents experienced more conflict in their friendships. Victimized adolescents might overeat, [18] or skip meals [19] and report having body dissatisfaction (especially among girls) [20]. Studies reveal that sleep problems [21], lower levels of self-esteem and self-efficacy [22; 23], and reduced classmate support [2] were found to explain why victimized adolescents have poorer academic achievement.
There is scanty literature of Nigerian studies on peer victimization and psychosocial health status of adolescents. This present study therefore investigated the patterns of peer victimization, social maladjustment and psychological distress; observe the relationship between peer victimization, and psycho-social health and examined the predictive influence of peer victimization on psychological distress and perceived social maladjustment among secondary school adolescents Osun state, southwestern Nigeria.
Hypotheses
1. Factors of Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale (MPVS) will significantly correlate with perceived social maladjustment and psychological distress.
2. The factors of MPVS will jointly and significantly predict levels of Psychological Distress (PD) and social maladjustmentamong the participants.
Materials and Methods
Participants
A cross sectional survey design utilizing an expost factor design was employed in the study. Multistage sampling technique was adopted in this study. Random sampling technique was used to select Ife metropolis from Osun East senatorial district southwestern Nigeria. Four Secondary Schools (two privately owned and two state owned) were purposively selected from the metropolis. Finally, 100 respondents were randomly selected from each of the four schools.
Measures
Three instruments were adapted and used as tools for data collection.
The Multidimensional Peer-Victimization Scale (MPVS) was developed and validated by Mynard and Joseph [24]. The scale is a 16- item self-report instrument consists of items intended to find out the extent to which students were victimized by their peers. The instrument has four domains of peer victimization, namely Physical Victimization (PV), Social Manipulation (SoM), Verbal Victimization (VV), and Attack on Property (AP). The items were reported to possess satisfactory internal reliability with Cronbach's Alpha values of0.85, 0.75, 0.77 and 0.73 for physical victimization, verbal victimization, social manipulation and attack on property subscales respectively [24].
Social Maladjustment Scale (SMS) was developed by Wiggins [25] and was adapted for this study. This 27- item inventory was designed to measure inadequate interaction, shyness, and a tendency to be reserved or reticent. It has an acceptable reliability coefficient Cronbach Alpha of .83. SMS has been used for a Nigerian study [26].
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) is a 12 item instrument by Goldberg and Williams [27] used to identify psychological distress. It has five response categories of 1 "Better than usual", to Worse than usual". Overall high scores consistently indicate high level of psychological distress. GHQ-12 has a reliability coefficient Cronbach's Alpa value of 0.73. GHQ-12 has been used by many Nigerian investigators [28; 29].
Results
Demographic Characteristics of Participants.
A total of 170 representing (42.5%) of the respondent were male while 230 representing (57.5%) were female. This indicate that majority of the respondent were females. Majority of the respondents were 9-15 years representing (66%) followed by 16-20 years representing (34%). This indicates that majority of the respondent are of 9-15 years. Distribution according to school type show that 200 adolescents (50%) each were drawn from public and private secondary schools. Furthermore, 199 students (29.8%) were from junior school while 281 (70.3%) were from the senior schools.
Table 1.- Patterns of Multidimensional Peer Victimization (MPV), Psychological Distress (PD), and Social Maladjustment (SM)
MPV Variables Patterns (%)
Mild Moderate Severe
Physical Victimization 52.0 36.8 11.2
Verbal victimisation 64.8 27.2 8.0
Social manipulation 56.8 30.5 12.7
Attack on property 54.8 31.0 14.2
Composite MPV 56.0 27.0 17.0
Levels of Psychological Distress (PD) 53.5 32.0 14.5
Levels of Social Maladjustment (SM) Patterns (%)
Low Mild Moderate Severe
17.3 27.5 19.9 27.8
Table 1 summarizes the patterns of MPV, Psychological distress and Social Maladjustment (SM). Patterns of dimensions and total of Multidimensional Peer Victimization (MPV) shows a 36.8% and 11.2% prevalence of moderate and severe
Physical Victimization (PV) respectively. Attack on Property (AP) was next in ranking with 31.0% (moderate) and 14.2% (severe) prevalence. Next is Social Manipulation (SoM) which returning 30.5% (moderate) and 12.7% (severe) prevalence
respectively. Table 1 further reports a 27.2% prevalence of moderate and 8% the severe level of verbal victimization and a 27.0% prevalence of moderate multidimensional peer victimization with 17% at the severe MPV level among the participants. Table 1 further shows a 53.5% prevalence of mild psychological distress, with 32% and 14.5% at the
Table 2.- Correlation matrix of PV, Social
moderate and severs levels respectively among the adolescents.
Finally, Pattern of Social Maladjustment shows that 17.3% of the adolescents were at very low level, (i.e. well adjusted) 27.5% at the mild social maladjustment level, 19.9% at the moderately level while only 27.8% were at the severe level.
Test of Hypotheses
Maladjustment and Psychological Distress
N= =400
Variables PV VV SoM AP MPVS SM PD
Physical Victimisation 1
Verbal Victimisation 0.421** 1
Social Manipulation 0.407** 0.365** 1
Attack on Property 0.321** 0.221** 0.500** 1
Total MPVS 0.735** 0.607** 0.679** 0.554** 1
Social Maladjustment 0.086 0.159** 0.155** 0.006 0.190** 1
Psychological Distress 0.051 150** 0.082 -0.048 0.082 -0.030 1
Table 2 shows the summary of Pearson Moment correlation analysis of the factors of multidimensional peer victimization scales, social maladjustment and psychological distress among adolescents. Significant positive correlation exists between VV
and social maladjustment (r = .159, p =.000); social manipulation and social maladjustment (r=.155, p= =.000); MPVS and social maladjustment (r = .190, p=.000), as well as between VV and Psychological Distress (r = .150, p=.000).
Table 3.- Regression analysis of degree of influence of MPVS on Psychological Distress and Social Maladjustment (SM)
N = 400
Psychological Distress (PD) Social Maladjustment (SM)
Variables ß T Sig. ß t Sig.
Constant 29.67 0.000 37.91 0.000
Physical Victimisation -0.01 -0.18 0.859 0.00 0.02 0.985
Verbal Victimisation 0.15 2.63 0.009 0.12 2.20 0.029
Social Manipulation 0.10 1.55 0.122 0.16 2.64 0.009
Attack on Property -0.13 -2.17 0.031 -0.10 -1.79 0.075
R2 0.035 0.044
F -ratio 3.62 4.54
P 0.006 0.001
Multiple regression analysis was carried out to determine the degree to which the factors of MPVS jointly and significantly predicted the severity of Psychological Distress (PD) and Social Maladjustment
(SM) among the participants. The summary in Table 3 suggests that the factors ofMPVS jointly predict the severity of PD (R2 = 0.035, p = 0.006). It is observed that 3.5% variance of PD is jointly explained by the fac-
tors ofpeer victimization. AP (p = -0.125, p = 0.031) and VV (p = -0.147, p = 0.009) were significant independent predictors of PD among the adolescents.
The summary in Table 3 also reveals that the factors of MPVS jointly predict severity of SM (R2 = 0.044, p = 0.001). It is observed that 4.4% variance of SM is jointly explained by the factors of PV. VV (p = 0.12, p = 0.029) and Social Manipulation (P =0.16, p = 0.009) were significant independent predictors of SM among the adolescents.
Discussions
The findings ofthis present study show a high prevalence ofpeer victimization, psychological distress, and social maladjustment among secondary school adolescents in Nigeria. Peer victimization is a common experience among school children [30; 31; 32]. According to Salmivalli and Peets [33], large numbers of children are victimized by their peers. In a related study on some Nigerian secondary school students sample Popoola [34] revealed that 70.6 percent ofhis study sample reported high level of peer victimization while 27% and 2.1% reported moderate and low levels of peer victimization respectively. Research studies also show a high rate ofpeer victimization globally [5; 31; 32].
The findings of this study affirm the significant positive correlation between peer victimization, social maladjustment and psychological distress. Peer relationships and social functioning are not only important in the secondary school years, as adolescents begin to develop self-concept and identity in relation to others, but social adjustment is also closely linked to development of psychopathologies [35]. This research finding is consistent with those of a meta-analysis of the consequences of bullying and victimization for psychosomatic health [36]. Relationship was observed between experiencing victimization and having higher poor psychosocial health in a study conducted in 28 countries in Europe and North America [37] and Norway [6].
Consistent with the growing number of longitudinal studies suggesting a relationship between peer victimization and psychological distress [38, 39]; we
found that MPVS jointly predict psychological distress among the adolescents. In a longitudinal study by Stapinski, et.al [39] it was found that frequent victimization is a risk factor for complex presentations involving diagnostic comorbidity. Frequently victimized adolescents were three times more likely than non-victimized adolescents to be diagnosed with multiple anxiety disorders or comorbid anxiety and depression in early adulthood [39]. Peer victimization is mediated by distress [40], psychological adjustment [41], daily emotions [42], self-blame [41], and negative self-evaluation [43]. Evidence from cross-sectional data supports the mediating role of coping self-efficacy, [44] and threat appraisal [45] in the relationship between peer victimization and anxiety disorders.
It is also observed in this study that MPVS jointly predict social maladjustment among adolescents. This finding supports previous empirical research conclusions. For instance, studies return that victimization relates to various forms of psychosocial maladjustment [46; 47]. Victims of bullying are often too frightened to go to school, suffer from low self-esteem, and are more likely to be anxious or depressed [48; 49]. Victimized children tend to be isolated and generally have a low social standing in the classroom [50].
Conclusions and recommendations
Sequel to the findings of this study there is an urgent need of school based psychological intervention programmes. This will in the first place help the victimized adolescents to overcome the effect of the psychological distresses resulting from peer victimization. Also behavior therapies on anger management and psycho-education on pro-social behavior would help identified perpetrators of victimization to embrace socially acceptable behavior.
Contingency management can also be used to reward desirable behavior systematically and extinguish or punish bullying behavior. Social skills training that teach new ways of behaving that are both desirable and rewarding can also be adopted to eradicate or seriously minimize peer victimization among secondary school adolescents.
Ethical Considerations Competing Interests
It was conducted based on Helsinki Declaration. Authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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