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Section 10. School Education
Uduak E. Inuen, M. Ed. in Educational Psychologyy Faculty of Education University of Uyo
Imoh B. Ekott, Ph D., in Sociology of Education, Faculty of Education University of Uyo E-mail: impactudy@yahoo.com
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND THE PSYCHOSOCIAL ADJUSTMENT OF ADOLESCENTS IN IKOT EKPENE FEDERAL CONSTITUENCY OF NIGERIA
Abstract.
Aims: This study sought to adduce the influence of peer victimization on the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents through an assessment of the differences in the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents with minimal and those with high levels of exposure to the selected variables of peer victimisation in Ikot Ekpene Federal Constituency of Akwa Ibom State.
Study design: The ex-post facto survey design was employed for the study.
Population of Study: The target population comprised 6,191 Senior Secondary Two students in the 22 Public Secondary Schools in Ikot Ekpene Federal Constituency of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.
Methodology: A randomised sample of 691 students was selected for data collection. Data collection was done using the Peer Victimization and Psychosocial Adjustment Questionnaire (PVPAQ) designed by the researchers. The reliability of the instrument was 79. The instrument was personally administered by the researcher. This was to ensure independent response of the respondents. Item weighted mean were computed and used in answering the research questions while Independent t-test statistics was used to analyse the null hypotheses.
Results: The influence of sexual harassment on the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents was not statistically significant even though the sample that were minimally exposed to sexual harassment recorded a slightly higher adjustment mean score (P = .05; n1 103; n2 588; df •690; m1 37.71; m2 38.26; sd1 4.29; sd2 5.03; t-calc .79; t-crit 1.9). Adolescents who reported high exposure to physical abuse had a lower psychosocial adjustment mean score compared with adolescents with minimal exposure to physical abuse. This observed difference was found to be statistically significant too (P = .05; n1 410; n2 281; df690; m1 29.21; m2 37.86; sd1 4.31; sd2 2.83; t-calc 5.95; t-crit 1.9). The influence of
verbal aggression was also statistically significant (P = .05; n 197; n2 494; df690; m1 29.34, m2 38.72, sd1 4.30, sd2 3.83, t-calc 3.75, t-crit 1.9).
Conclusion: Peer victimization in the form of sexual harassment, physical abuse and verbal aggression make the learning environment threatening and therefore non-conducive for the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents.
Keywords: Peer group, Peer victimization; Educational Psychology; School Counselling.
1. Introduction
Traditionally, peer victimization is identified mainly on the physical acts of aggression like kicking, punching and slapping. Bettencourt [1], in defining peer victimisation operationally, subsumes such relational aspects of abuse as gossip, rumour mon-gering, name calling, teasing, verbal threats, verbal assault and gender discrimination aimed at harming the social reputation of the victim. Therefore, peer victimization embodies both the overt (physical) and the covert (verbal or relational) aspects of aggressive acts which according to Olweus [2] occur overtime and reflects an imbalance of power between perpetrator and victim. Peer victimization has negative outcomes such as low self-esteem, low school engagement, school avoidance, lower school achievement, depression, loneliness and even suicide attempts. Those who cannot develop social skills are easy target as well as victims of victimization apart from being physically weak and compliant with little or no resistance.
According to Reynolds and Fletcher-Janzen [3], psychosocial adjustment refers to social and emotional functioning, the way a person relates and interacts with others. It shows how humans act in their social environments in the best and consistent interest. This according to Stosny [4] can be achieved through:
1. Approach - appreciation through love;
2. Avoid - devaluation through rejection;
3. Attack - destruction through hatred.
The tendency towards adjustment is the tendency towards self-actualization. Adjustment in psychology is the behavioural process by which humans and other animals maintain equilibrium among their
various needs or between their needs and the obstacles of their environments. A sequence of adjustment begins when a need is felt and ends when it is satisfied. Hungry people are stimulated to need food and when they eat, the stimulating condition is reduced which leads to the adjustment. To this end, an adolescent will likely develop behavioural problems if he is not helped to satisfy his deficiency by the significant people around him and left entirely to his own devices with no one to interact with. Conversely, if his problems are solved and his basic needs sufficiently gratified, he devotes himself to learning and enjoying self-fulfilling experiences. In support of this premise, Okonkwo [5] stated that adolescents' abilities and talents can manifest if the home and society provide sufficient growth factors to enable them transit smoothly into adulthood.
However, adolescents are always enthusiastic about graduating into secondary schools and are eager to gain more freedom and adventure. Most of them later discover that what they experience falls short of their expectations. To them, the new environment becomes uncomfortable and insecure. They have also been seen recently, to express some negative traits like depression, anxiety, poor emotional adjustment as well as isolation from public gatherings. This may be as a result of peer victimization. One of the topical issues on news articles is victimization in secondary schools where adolescents are victimized sexually, physically and verbally by fellow peers [6].
The various cases of sexual assaults against peers have become a global concern [7]. To students, it has become a norm or what they call school life. The persistent sexual advances they suffer from their fellow peers may not be noticeable by the teachers and even
parents due to the fact that the victims may not want to raise alarm. In most cases, teachers may be indifferent and may lack the capacity to exert their own influence on the situation [6]. However, it makes the environment intimidating, hostile and unsafe for learning. Many students have been seen to stay away from school, skip classes, participate less in class activities, record low grades among other deviant behaviours. Sexual victimization puts them at greater risks for anti- social behaviours [8].
Physical abuse involves those acts of violence meant to inflict injury on fellow peers because of the imbalance of power between the two parties. Comer [9] stated that schools in Colorado and California have been reported to record students' killings of their fellow students as well as inflicting injuries on them. In the Nigerian situation, it goes beyond school violence and involves siblings and relatives fighting in the streets, which is a serious social problem. Some disciplinary measures have been taken in most schools in the form of punishment or suspension of those caught with weapons in schools. Some school authorities expel those associated with severe cases ofvictimization. Yet, so many students go home with bruises, inflicted on them by their peers.
Verbal aggression embodies rumours, gossips and discrimination among peers. It is another act of aggression that does not necessarily inflict injury but causes emotional harm on the victims. The evidence is not obvious but the effects are as dangerous as physical abuse. Recently, there has been an attempt to discourage the concept of deviancy in Nigerian secondary schools through the introduction of Civic Education in Nigerian school curriculum in order to teach the students good morals. However, the misconduct still persists.
Howell [10] stated that victimized children experience real suffering that can interfere with their social, emotional development and academic performance. For those forms of victimization which are obvious, it will be very devastating for a parent to see a child come from school with bruises or scars on the body.
A caring parent will investigate to know the cause of the problem. Also, it takes a sensitive parent to notice that the child has not been in good mood. A proper follow-up will revive the child to a happy mood. The absence of it increases the chances of depression.
1.1. Purpose of the Study
This study sought to adduce the influence of peer victimization on the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents through an assessment of the differences in the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents with minimal and those with high levels of exposure to the selected variables of peer victimisation. Specifically, the study sought to examine:
1. The difference in the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents with high exposure to sexual harassment and those with minimal exposure to sexual harassment.
2. The difference in the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents with high exposure to physical abuse and those with minimal exposure to physical abuse.
3. The difference in the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents with high exposure to verbal aggression and those with minimal exposure to verbal aggression.
1.2. Research Questions
1. How do the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to sexual harassment differ from that of adolescents with minimal exposure to sexual harassment?
2. How do the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to physical abuse differ from that of adolescents with minimal exposure to physical abuse?
3. How do the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to verbal aggression differ from that of adolescents with minimal exposure to verbal aggression?
1.3. Null Hypotheses
1. There is no significant difference in the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to sexual harassment and those with minimal exposure to sexual harassment.
2. There is no significant difference in the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to physical abuse and those with minimal exposure to physical abuse.
3. There is no significant difference in the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to verbal aggression and those with minimal exposure to verbal aggression.
1.4. Review of Literature
Sesar, Zivcic-Bécirevic and Sesar [11] determined the prevalence and inter-correlation of different forms of childhood maltreatment and psychological problems in adolescents in Western Herzegovina Canton. A sample of 458 third-grade high school students between age 15 and 20 were drawn. The result of the study showed that 77% were emotionally abused, 52% physically abused, 30% neglected, 20% witnessed family violence and 13% of girls and 21% of boys were sexually abused before the age of 14.
McMaster, Connolly, Pepler and Craig [12] conducted a study to identify sexual harassment in early adolescence. Youths from Grades 6-8 (N = 1.213) enrolled in seven elementary middle schools in a large south-central Canadian city were asked to report on their sexual harassment behaviours with same and cross-gender peers; their pubertal development and the gender composition of their peer network. A developmental contextual model was adopted to examine the possibility that this behaviour develops during the late elementary and middle school years and is linked to the biological and social changes that occurred at the time of study. Available data indicated that peer to peer social harassment is prevalent in high school and it is associated with psychosocial problems for both victims and perpetrators. The result revealed that cross-gender harassment was distinct from same-gender harassment, increased in frequency from Grade 6 to Grade 8 and was linked to pubertal maturation and participation in mixed-gender peer groups.
Elliot, Cunningham, Meadow, Colangelo and Gross [13] studied the connection between physical abuse and social isolation. Using data from the Na-
tional Youth Survey, a measure of self-perceived social isolation was constructed indicating the extent to which respondents feel detached from their friends and from school. Those who had experienced violence were predicted to be more isolated than those who did not. Explanation was provided in terms of damage to attachment skills, social competence and self-esteem as a result of being a victim of abuse. Males were more socially isolated than females and Hispan-ics more than Whites. Children with involved parents were less socially isolated and those whose parents experienced normlessness were more socially isolated. Children who recently experienced a stressful event or were from riskier neighbourhoods were more isolated.
Nwankwo [14] investigated the relationship between Child Abuse and Social Adjustments of public primary school pupils in Abia State. A sample of 1075 pupils, were drawn from primary five pupils in the public primary schools in the state for 2009/2010 academic session. The data collected from the study were analysed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) and the regression analysis. The major findings of the study were that emotional abuse and temperament significantly relate. Sexual abuse and social interaction did not relate significantly.
2. Methodology
2.1. Design
The researcher used a descriptive survey design in order to be able to describe the differences in the dependent variables based on the grouping (independent) variables and lend a basis for deduction of the existent influence or contributions of the independent variable (peer victimization) to the dependent variable (psychosocial adjustment of adolescents). This is in line with Bassey [15] who stated that descriptive survey design is done for the purpose of finding, describing and interpreting "what is" and not discovering new facts since the observation is devoid of any manipulation.
2.2. Population and Sample
The target population of this study was 6,191 Senior Secondary Two (SS2) students in the 22 Public
Secondary Schools in Ikot Ekpene Federal Constituency. From this population, a randomised sample of 691 students was selected for data collection.
2.3. Instrumentation:
The Peer Victimization and Psychosocial Adjustment Questionnaire (PVPAQ) designed by the researchers, was used for the study. Section A of the questionnaire collected demographic data of respondents while section B collected data on the influence of peer victimization on psychosocial adjustment on a four-point scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) which were scored 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively for positive items. The reliability of the instrument was .79.
2.4. Method of Data Collection and Analysis
The researchers conducted the survey in person to ensure the sample selection and data collection procedure were properly carried out in order that the data gathered for the study may have greater validity. Thus, the respondents were assured of confidentiality and allowed sufficient time to complete the questionnaire. Item weighted mean was used to answer research questions while Independent t-test was used to analyse the hypotheses.
3. Results
3.1. Sexual Harassment and Adolescents' Psychosocial Adjustment
Table 1.- Analysis of sexual harassment and adolescents' psychosocial adjustment
Dependent Variable Sexual Harassment N X % SD t-Calc t-Crit
Psychosocial Adjustment High Exposure 103 37.71 15% 4.29 0.679 1.96
Low Exposure 588 38.26 85% 5.03
NS P = 0.05, N = 691, df = 690 To answer the research question: How does the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to sexual harassment differ from that of adolescents with minimal exposure to sexual harassment? data in Table 1 shows that 15 per cent of the students reported high exposure to sexual harassment, the remaining 85 per cent had minimal exposure to sexual harassment. The students who reported high exposure to sexual harassment had a lower psychosocial adjustment mean score compared to the group that had minimal exposure. This data shows that students who suffered various forms of sexual harassment were not as psychosocially well-
adjusted as their peers in the group with minimal sexual harassment. The data in (Table 1) further shows that there is no significance difference in the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of students with high exposure to sexual harassment and those with minimal exposure to sexual harassment. Hence the null hypothesis which postulated that there is no significant difference in the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to sexual harassment and those with minimal exposure to sexual harassment was upheld.
3.2. Physical Abuse and Adolescents' Psychosocial Adjustment
Table 2.- Analysis of physical abuse and adolescents' psychosocial adjustment (N = 691)
Dependent Variable Physical Abuse N X % SD t-Calc. t-Crit.
Psychosocial Adjustment High Exposure 410 29.21 59% 4.31 5.95* 1.96
Low Exposure 281 37.86 41% 2.84
* Significant P = 0.05, N = 691, df = 690
To answer the research question: How does the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to physical abuse differ from that of ado-
lescents with minimal exposure to physical abuse? Table 2 shows that up to 59 per cent of the student experienced high exposure to physical abuse. These stu-
dents a lower psychosocial adjustment mean score of 29.21 compared to students who experienced minimal exposure to physical abuse who scored 37.86 on the psychosocial adjustment scale. This data shows that physical abuse had a negative influence on the psychosocial adjustment of the students. The data in (Table 2) further shows that there is significance difference in the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of students with high exposure to physical abuse
and those with minimal exposure to physical abuse. Hence the null hypothesis which postulated that there is no significant difference in the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to physical abuse and those with minimal exposure to physical abuse was rejected.
3.3. Verbal Aggression and Adolescents' Psychosocial Adjustment
Table 3.- Analysis of verbal aggression and adolescents' psychosocial adjustment (N = 691)
Dependent Variable Verbal Aggression N X % SD t-Calc. t-Crit.
Psychosocial Adjustment High Exposure 197 29.34 29% 4.30 3.75* 1.96
Low Exposure 494 38.72 71% 3.83
* Significant P = 0.05, N = 691, df = 690
To answer the research question: How does the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to verbal aggression differ from that of adolescents with minimal exposure to verbal aggression? Table 3 shows that only 29 per cent of the students experienced high exposure to verbal aggression, the other 71 per cent had minimal exposure to verbal aggression. The data further shows that students who reported high exposure to verbal aggression recorded a lower mean score of29.34 on the psychosocial adjustment scale compared to students who had minimal exposure to verbal aggression who scored 38.72 on the same scale. This data indicates that verbal aggression has a negative influence on the psychosocial adjustment of students. The data in Table 3 further shows that there is significance difference in the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of students with high exposure to verbal aggression and those with minimal exposure to verbal aggression. Hence the null hypothesis which postulated that there is no significant difference in the psychosocial adjustment mean-scores of adolescents with high exposure to verbal aggression and those with minimal exposure to verbal aggression was rejected. 3.3. Discussion of the Findings
The findings of this study indicate that sexual harassment has no influence on the psychosocial
adjustment of adolescents. This outcome is at variance with Nursres [16] who claimed in a review that harassment is pervasive among both male and female but particularly problematic for girls due to their quantitatively different harassment experiences. However, whatever sexual activity goes on in schools, it must have been as a result of consent from both parties which is not considered as harassment. This could be as a result of improvement in school counselling and sex education - formal and informal. It could also be as a result of sensitization campaign on HIV/AIDS as well as pressure from women professional association. The researcher therefore agrees with the fact that there is no significant influence of sexual harassment on the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents in the study population.
The result of this study further indicated that physical abuse has significant influence on the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents. This study by its findings indicated that adolescents experience physical abuse from their peers especially in schools which does not allow them to adjust properly in that social environment. The findings of this study is in congruence with the review of Elliot, Cunningham, Linder, Colangelo and Gross [13] that those who had experienced violence were predicted to be more isolated than those who did not. This is also in
line with Chin [17] that childhood physical abuse is a risk factor for depression and antisocial behaviours, the consequences which the society may suffer. Childhood physical abuse may arise as a result of poor attachment and parenting as discussed in the literature review. The researcher noticed that if parents and caregivers maltreat their children at the early stage, they develop the internal working model for antisocial behaviours. It is either they are so violent or become vulnerable to it. If these deviant behaviours are not checked and it gets out of control, it becomes a social problem which is a negative impact on the society.
This study also found significant influence ofver-bal aggression on the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents. The finding is in consonance with the major findings of Nwankwo [14] that emotional abuse and temperament significantly relate. Aluede [18] in a related study also concluded that those who are psychologically maltreated do not become competent adults capable of full potentials. This is because the unresolved crisis of the early stage becomes accumulated problems in the future as stated in Erick Erickson's theory ofpsychosocial development. The
significance of the result caused the null hypothesis to be rejected while the alternative one is accepted.
4. Conclusion and recommendations
It has been established from the data collected and analysed in this study that adolescents suffer victimization from their peers with reference to sexual harassment, physical abuse, and verbal aggression. Since most of the adolescents are found in secondary schools, these forms of victimization make the learning environment threatening for them to adjust properly. It therefore brings about maladjustment. The following recommendations were made based on the findings of this study:
1. State Secondary Education Board should introduce school based intervention programmes such as Anti Bullying Campaign and Counselling Club that will be run by counsellors in order to build positive relationships among students;
2. Each school should have a psycho-medical team (a psychologist, a counsellor and a nurse) for complete therapy of the maladjusted adolescents;
3. Parents should check their level of aggression and physical punishment so that it does not lead to physical abuse of their children.
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