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Gulshen Gasimzadeh Post-graduate student of Azerbaijan State Academy of Arts DOI: 10.24412/2520-6990-2022-4127-4-7 OTTOMAN PALACE CARPETS AND THE ROLE OF AZERBAIJANI ARTISTS IN THEIR
DEVELOPMENT
Гюльшан Гасымзаде
диссертант Азербайджанской Государственной Академии Художеств
ОТТОМАНСКИЕ ДВОРЦОВЫЕ КОВРЫ И РОЛЬ АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНСКИХ ХУДОЖНИКОВ И
МАСТЕРОВ В ИХ РАЗВИТИИ
Abstract.
In the article, the palaces erected in Turkey in XV-XVI centuries in Turkey in Ottoman period and carpets, used in artistic design of these palaces is spoken about. It's pointed out, that in Konya, Karapinar, Sivas, Divigi and Bursa very beautiful carpets of high quality were produced, but Ladik was a center ofprayer carpets weaving.
In differfrom Turkish carpets of Seljuk period, in carpets ofXVI-XVII centuries i. e. of Ottoman Empire period the influence of Azerbaijani and Egyptian carpets is seen clearly. While leaving Tabriz Sultan Selim I moved in Istanbul hundreds of artists. These artists worked in different spheres, such as ceramics, carpet weaving, and miniature art. Among them calligraphers were also.
Beautiful carpets of highest quality were produced in Konya, Karapinar, Sivas, Divigi and Bursa. Ladik was center of prayer carpets weaving. In forming of palace carpets of Ottoman period Azerbaijani artists played, especially artist Shagulu played very important role.
Аннотация.
В статье говорится о дворцах, возводимых в Турции в XV-XVI в период Османской империи и коврах, используемых в художественном оформлении этих дворцов. Указывается, что в Конии, Карапинаре, Си-васе, Дивиги и Бурсе производились очень красивые, высококачественные ковры, в то время как Ладик был центром по производству молитвенных ковров. В отличие от турецких ковров сельджукского периода в коврах XVI-XVII вв, т. е. Османского периода заметно влияние ковроткачества Азербайджана и Египта. Покидая Табриз Султан Селим I насильственно переселил в Стамбул сотни мастеров. Эти мастера, художники работали в самых различных сферах- керамике, ковроделии, искусстве миниатюры. Среди взятых в плен мастеров были также каллиграфы.
Красивые, высококачественные ковры производились в Конье, Карапинаре, Сивасе, Дивиги, Бурсе. Ладик был центром производства молитвенных ковров. В формировании дворцовых ковров Оттоманского периода большую роль сыграли азербайджанские ковроделы и художники, в том числе ведущий придворный художник Шахгулу.
Keywords: Ottoman, palace, Azerbaijani, Egypt, carpet, Safavids, Tabriz, Istanbul.
Ключевые слова: Дворцовый, азербайджанский, Египет, ковер, Сефевиды, Оттоманский, Табриз, Стамбул.
In period of Ottoman Empire prosperity in this state the part of Iran, Syria, Palestine, Iraq, the Balkan peninsula, Hungary, southern Russia, part of Poland, Egypt, North Africa and Sudan were included. For this reason, the art of the Ottoman Sultan's palace was influenced by different cultures developed in the occupied territories and formed as affected by them. In this regard, within the borders of the study topic special attention should be paid to the influence of Safavid Tabriz.
The similarities between Ottoman and Safavid culture were based on the analogy of their political, economic, and cultural development. Both states -Azerbaijan (Safavids) and Turkey (Ottomans) and their art schools flourished at the same time, namely in the XVI-XVII centuries. Turkey and Azerbaijan were
united by a common religion - Islam and close ethnogenetic and cultural ties.
Azerbaijani artists who run away from Mongol captivity to Ottoman Turkey worked successfully in new conditions and had best opportunities to realize their talents. In the XIII century, when the development of Seljuk architecture got its highest point, in the Konya sultanate mainly Azerbaijani architects and ornamentalist-painters worked [1, p.118]. In particular, The Green Mosque in Bursa, which was the capital of Turkey, was erected in 1419 by an architect from Tabriz. [2, p.27].
At the same time, the relations between mentioned two countries were not always friendly and secure. In 1503, Shah Ismail Khatai overthrew the Ag Goyunlu (White Sheep, Azerb) state, territories of Iran and Iraq, established the Safavid state, and became its
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ruler. As the result of rise of the Safavid-Qizilbash power, its interest in the territories of neighboring states, including the Ottoman and Shirvanshah states increased also. As for the representatives of the Ottoman dynasty, they appealed from time to time to the Safavids for help in their struggle for the throne, but sometimes placed pressure on them. The first armed conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid state, i.e. military operations between the two states, took place in 1514-1555. These conflicts took place on the basis of religious differences between Sunni Turks and Shiite Azerbaijanis. As a result of that war, in 1555 a peace treaty was concluded.
The Battle of Chaldiran became n important historical event and had a special place in Safavid-Ottoman relations. The famous "Battle of Chaldiran", i.e. the battle between the armies of the Ottoman and Safavid states in Chaldiran took place in 1514, August 23, to the northwest of Lake Van. The main aim of that battle was to get control over Armenian plateau, the Caucasus and Mesopotamia. The battle ended in the victory of the Ottoman army. The Ottomans entered Tabriz which was the capital of the Safavids, but were unable to hold it for a long time and had to retreate. When leaving Tabriz, Sultan Selim I relocated by force hundreds of artists to Istanbul. These artists worked in various spheres - ceramics, carpet weaving, miniature painting. Among the captured artists calligraphers were also [3, p.34]. From Tabriz rich material wealth, including Shah Ismail's throne, weapons, and clothes, thousands of valuable books, rare miniatures and carpets were taken out as trophy [2, p.25]. The same incident was repeated in 1559, when Sultan Suleyman occupied Tabriz for the second time, and much trophies were taken from Tabriz again.
After the Battle of Chaldiran, the Safavids moved their capital from Tabriz to Qazvin. This precaution was very necessary - the Ottomans captured Tabriz in 1534 and 1548, and every time they took rich trophies from here. Besides, in 1578-1590 Turkish-Iranian wars for control of the Caucasus took place again.
In 1590, the Istanbul Treaty between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid state was signed, and as a result, Iran lost the Caucasus. In general, in period of the Turkish-Iranian wars, "hundreds of artists families, many painters and folk craftsmen were relocated to Istanbul [4, p.8]. Along with it, numerous rare carpets and other material and artistic treasures were also taken away. The captured and brought to Turkey artists were checked at special distribution points, and their specialization and professional level were determined here. E.g. one group of artists brought to Istanbul by Sultan Suleyman was called "Jamaate Naqqashi Ajam", "Jamaati Qalichebafan", "Jamaati Memaran". [2, p.40].
Turkish researcher Biga Cetinturk writes that members of "Jamaati Qalichebafan" were mainly the sultan's personal carpet weavers [2, pp. 40-41]. Most of them worked as captives or slaves. In his work, the researcher also gives information on the daily wages of artists and marked which sultan they worked fof' [2, p.41)].
For captured artists new workplaces were created. In 1595, throughout all Empire 16 large workshops
functioned, in which beautiful carpets using wool, silk, and cotton threads were woven [5, p.17]. Without diminishing the importance of Ottoman weaving, it is necessary to point out special role of Tabriz craftsmen in that development.
The carpets brought to Istanbul were presented local palace artists and weavers as artistic samples. In the Ottoman palace an artist from Tabriz by the name of Shahgulu worked. Sultan Suleyman personally invited Shahgulu to his palace and "addressing him with great sympathy appointed him as the chief of 29 palace artists. Sultan Suleyman separated out a special workshop for Shahgulu, paid him 100 aspras a day, and often visited him" [6, p.62].
L.Kerimov presented the information given by Turkish historians about the role of Shahgulu in the development of Ottoman miniature art in following way: "Before Fatih's time, our artists benefited from Seljuk and Bursa schools, and even Western art. From the time when Shahgulu led this art, they were influenced for a while by Iranian art (i.e Tabriz school art) [4, p.90].
When talking about Tabriz artists working in the Ottoman palace, the names of prominent representatives of the Azerbaijani miniature school of the XVI-XVII centuries - Kamal Tabrizi (second half of the XVI century), Veli Jan Tabrizi, Abdulgani, Mansur bey, Mir Agha, Sheikh Kamal, Ali Jan should be mentioned particularly [4, p.90]. According to this information, it would be logical to talk about the strong influence of the Tabriz miniature school on the Ottoman miniature art. Y. Miller notes that "the influence of Iran (Tabriz) manifests itself in the adoption of plots, iconography and techniques and gradually that influnce became stronger" [6, p. 52].
It is well known fact that Shah Tahmasp was interested in creating carpet outlines. Another exact historical fact is that in 1556 Shah Tahmasp wrote a letter to the Ottoman ruler Sultan Suleyman, stating that he would send himself the carpet for the Cathedral mosque -Jameh (Mosque of Suleyman the Magnificent) built by the great Sinan. In that letter Shah Tahmasp also asked Ottoman ruler to send him the measurements of the hall. As a result, the carpets were woven in time and were sent to the mentioned mosque [2, p.38].
We have also information that in 1567, the Iranian ambassador presented the Prime Minister (Wazir) and other ministers silky carpets woven in Hamadan and Dargazi. 44 camels carried those gifts. Thirty four camels carried gifts presented by the shah himself, and the rest camels carried gifts, given by ambassadors. Twenty large carpets were the most valuable items among those gifts. These carpets were decorated with images of birds, animals and flowers made of gold thread. In addition, there were nine carpets woven from camel wool [1, p.121]. Making reference to A.Poup, K.M.Aliyeva pointed out, that the carpets woven in Hamadan and Dabarzin are the brightest samples of north-western type (i.e. Tabriz) medallion carpets [1, p.121].
At the beginning of the XVII century (1603), military operations between the Safavids and the Ottomans began again and they continued until 1639.
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European states and Russia played an important role in this conflict, because they were also interested in the opposition between Safavids and Ottomans. During the military campaign of 1603-1607, Shah Abbas I liberated all Azerbaijani territories from the Ottomans, including Tabriz, whole South Azerbaijan, Ordubad, Julfa, Nakhchivan (1603), Irevan (1604), Ganja (1606), Shemakha (1607), Baku and Derbent.
Despite very problematic political confrontation, all kinds of contacts (including military ones) created a dialogue in the sphere of culture and art. Thus, " numerous military clashes caused the relocation of many skilled artists, who also were forced to work in new conditions and continued their creative activity [6, p.22]. As a result, because the historical situation Azerbaijani artists had to work in Ottoman workshops. Hundreds and thousands of Azerbaijani artists who found themselves in Turkey worked here and they left a great mark in Turkish art and gave a strong impetus to the formation of its image [1, p. 118].
At the beginning of XX century, famous artist Huseyn Tabrizi who was Latif Karimov's master worked and taught at Sinan University in Istanbul. Huseyn Tabrizi established his own miniature school, a school of carpet and ceramic design. At the same time, despite the important role played by Azerbaijani artists, Ottoman carpets are a quite independent and unique phenomenon. This originality is also displayed quite clearly in Ottoman miniatures. Researchers note that "Turkish artists were far from the refinement, elegance and grace of Tabriz miniatures. The color scheme of Ottoman miniatures also looks relatively "heavy", even harsh, and in many cases it is based on the opposition of contrasting colors [7].
In general, the artistic analysis of Ottoman palace carpets afford grounds to talk about the closeness of Turkish palace art with Azerbaijani art and about the originality of the former one. Turkish carpet weaving art has rich traditions. The roots of these traditions go back to the time when the Oguzs tribes lived in Central Asia. During the Ottoman period, carpet weaving developed on a quite new level. In comparison with the few carpets of the Seljuk period that have survived to our time, mentioned carpet weaving is presented in a larger scale of factual material (XVI-XIX centuries). At the time, the carpets were both works of folk art and the work of professional palace artists. Professional craftsmen created their carpets on the basis of sketches and reflected them in the carpet material. In this investigation, we found it expedient to focus on carpets belonging to the last group.
Except Istanbul, the palaces of the vice-regents were located also in the capital cities of the principalities (beyliks). For decorating these magnificent buildings numerous high-quality, luxurious carpets were needed. The development of the palace-type carpets production in different cities of Turkey was connected with this fact. In addition, local aristocrats bought Tabriz products with great pleasure. Tabriz carpets were considered as the standard, the most beautiful and high-quality carpets in the East, and the Tabriz carpet-weaving school had an exceptional influence on the art of carpet-weaving in many countries of the Moslem East.
In the Ottoman period the following centers of carpet weaving are known. First of all, it is necessary to mention Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman empire. Carpet workshops were located in Topkapi Palace, Uskudar and Kum Kapi. Until the XIX century, wool and silk carpets with gold and silver threads were woven in these workshops. In these carpets the traditions of the Ottoman period were continued. The largest sales center of Ottoman carpets was located in the port city of Smyrna. (Smyrna is the ancient name of the modern city of Izmir.) Carpets were not woven in Smyrna, but carpets which were produced in the surrounding villages are known as "Smyrna" carpets. These palace carpets were distinguished by a curved "urban" pattern, typical for palace carpets.
In addition, carpets were imported from different parts of Turkey and transported to European markets by sea. Since the XV century, the city of Ushak, located in the western Aegean region of Turkey, has been one of the largest centers of carpet weaving. Most likely, Ushak was the center that supplied the Topkapi palace with carpets, because the palace workshops were located here. Its also interesting, that at the beginning of XVII century, "Armenians and Greeks made up the main part of the inhabitant in the town of Ushak, but only Greek women were involved in carpet weaving" [6].
The city of Bergama in the province of Izmir should be mentioned also. The city of Bergama was famous for its traditional crafts - cotton clothes, gold products, and finally the famous Bergama carpets. Numerous villages on the Aegean coast, in Anatolia, were also known as carpet weaving centers. Very beautiful, high-quality carpets were also woven in Konya, Karapinar, Sivas, Divrigi and Bursa. Ladik was the center of prayer carpet production.
One of the most original and most interesting features of Ottoman palace carpets is their unusual structure. In differ from other Turkish carpets, in Ottoman palace carpets S-twisted wool threads were used. This feature that is characteristic for carpets woven in Egypt. Experts connect this unusual feature with the conquest of Egypt by the Ottomans in 1517. In other words, the Ottomans began to buy carpets from Egyptian workshops, using the labor of Egyptian weavers and Egyptian raw materials (wool), and sent the raw materials to Turkey and local workshops. Numerous beautiful carpets woven for Istanbul in Cairo workshops are survived to this day. Cairo becomes the largest centre where Ottoman carpets were bought. As its known, Sultan Murad III ordered 11 weavers to move from Cairo to Istanbul. These weavers brought two tonnes of dyed wool to weave carpets in the palace workshop of Istanbul [8].
As well as in the Safavid period, in the weaving of carpets the wool and cotton yarn was used. E.g. silk, gold, and silver threads were used to make pile and pileless products. In Ottoman Turkey, as well as in Safavid Azerbaijan, there was a tradition - to present beautiful silk carpets to mosques. For this reason, most of the carpets kept in the Istanbul Carpet Museum were presented to the museum by the Divrigi Grand Mosque. («Divrigi Ulu Came Mosque» (Turk) is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List) [9].
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Literature
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2. Керимов Л.Г. Азербайджанский ковер. т. 2. - Баку. - 1983.
3. Казиев А.Ю. Художественное оформление азербайджанской рукописной книги XIII-XVII вв. -М.: Книга -1977.
4. Керимов К.Дж. Султан Мухаммед и его школа - М.: Искусство -1970.
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5. Batari, Ferenc. Ottoman Turkish Carpets. -Budapest: Kezthelg. - 1994.
6. Миллер Ю.А. Искусство Турции. - М.: Искусство - 1965.
7. Всеобщая история искусств. Том 2., внига вторая// Под общей редакцией Б.В.Веймарна и Ю.Д.Колпинского. - М.: Искусство.
8. (https://www.pinterest.se/pin/4039870290537 17629/
9. http://www.azerbaijanrugs.com/anatolian/in-dex_anatolian_rugs_carpets.htm
Кухмазова Юлизана Шафиевна
ORCID : 0000-0002-1844-0640 Доктор философии по искусствоведению, доцент кафедры «Хорового дирижирования» Бакинской музыкальной академии имени Узеира Гаджибейли, Заслуженная артистка Азербайджанской Республики, Хормейстер государственной капеллы, Азербайджанская государственная академическая филармония
имени Муслима Магомаева DOI: 10.24412/2520-6990-2022-4127-7-14 ДВЕ ХОРОВЫЕ МИНИАТЮРЫ ХАДИДЖИ ЗЕЙНАЛОВОЙ
Kukhmazova Yulizana Shafievna
ORCID : 0000-0002-1844-0640 Doctor of Philosophy in Art History Associate Professor of the Department of Choral Conducting Baku Musical Academy named after Uzeyir Hajibeyli, Honored Artist of the Republic of Azerbaijan,
Choirmaster of the State Chapel Azerbaijan State Academic Philharmonic Society named after Muslim Magomayev
TWO CHORAL MINIATURES BY KHADIJA ZEYNALOVA
Аннотация
В статье рассматриваются две хоровые миниатюры азербайджанского композитора Хадиджи Зей-наловой - «Magnus es Domine» на традиционный христианский текст и «Der hоеhere Frieden» на слова немецкого поэта Генриха фон Клейста.
Композитор является выпускницей Бакинской музыкальной академии имени Узеира Гаджибейли, где обучалась в классе профессора Хайяма Мирзазаде. Затем она поступает в Музыкальную академию Дет-мольда, где продолжает образование в композиторском отделении, которое завершает с отличием.
Х.Зейналова как докторант Падерборнского университета работает над исследованием «Азербайджанская культура и композиторская школа», а также защитила диссертацию на тему «Музыкальная культура Азербайджана ХХ века и тенденции западной музыки».
Abstract
The article deals with two choral miniatures by the Azerbaijani composer Khadija Zeynalova - "Magnus es Domine" to a traditional Christian text and "Der hohere Frieden" to the words of the German poet Heinrich von Kleist.
The composer is a graduate of the Baku Music Academy named after Uzeyir Hajibayli, where she studied in the class of Professor Khayyam Mirzazade. Then she enters the Detmold Academy of Music, where she continues her education in the composition department, which she completes with honors.
H.Zeynalova, as a doctoral student at the University of Paderborn, is working on the study "Azerbaijani culture and composer school", and also defended her dissertation on the topic "Musical culture of Azerbaijan in the 20th century and trends in Western music".
Ключевые слова: азербайджанский композитор, хоровая миниатюра, Хадиджа Зейналова, культура,
хор.
Keywords: Azerbaijani composer, choral miniature, Khadija Zeynalova, culture, choir.
