CC BY
164
Roya TAGHIYEVA
D.Sc. (Art History), professor, director of the Karimov State Museum of Azerbaijani Carpets and Decorative Applied Arts, chairman of the Azerbaijani National Committee of the International Council of Museums (ICOM)
(Baku, Azerbaijan).
THE ART OF AZERBAIJANI CARPET WEAVING IN THE CONTEXT OF THE INTERCIVILIZATIONAL DIALOG
Abstract
The article takes a look at the history of the development of Azerbaijani carpets in the context of the interciviliza-tional dialog. It traces the sources of the development of carpet weaving in Azerbai-
jan, the traditional features of Azerbaijani carpets, the latter in interaction with world culture, the place and significance of Azerbaijani carpets in world culture, and the protection of the Azerbaijani carpet.
I n t r o d u c t i o n
The carpet is beyond doubt an important attribute of human civilization. The traditional carpet, both in terms of its pragmatic and symbolic functions, is the quintessence of the Azerbaijani culture, also being an inherent element of the culture of many other nationalities.
For the Azerbaijani people, the art of carpet making is an area of culture that reflects its rich spiritual world, individual and unique characteristics, intellect, world outlook, aesthetics, and life
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philosophy. Since time immemorial, Azerbaijanis have been born, lived, and died on carpets, so it stands to reason that carpets in their innumerable forms have always been an inalienable attribute of their everyday life.
Weaving, and carpet weaving in particular, which, being utilitarian in designation, are popular among many nationalities and also embody the aesthetics of harmony, rhythm, and color. But a unique blend of specific geographic, economic, and social conditions was necessary to turn carpet making into a genuine, dominating, and aesthetically valuable art form that comprehensively reflects the essence of the nation’s philosophy and spirit.
Azerbaijan, which combines all of these conditions, has been one such area and it was in this unique environment that the nation’s artistic mentality formed. Thanks to this, carpet making became one of the most important aspects of the creative activity of Azerbaijan’s population and stood out among the other types of decorative applied art. The carpet has always been an important attribute of the national lifestyle, reflecting the social, economic, political, and cultural changes in the life of the people and society as a whole. It features in folklore, classical Azerbaijani literature, as well as in the songs of ashug singers. In addition, the carpet has not only become an item of everyday life, but has also developed into the people’s main realm of artistic expression. The carpet retains its value even when the way of life changes and an entirely different everyday and artistic environment takes shape.
Despite all the innovations in materials, production techniques, aesthetics, and design, the carpet is an amazing cultural constant. Even the rapid changes in lifestyle in the 21st century have not led to the disappearance of the carpet, which can be found in the most modern interiors.
Research of Azerbaijani carpets relies on a broad source base. It includes the data of archeological monuments, beginning with the Eneolithic period and the reports of classical and medieval authors and travelers, as well as of epigraphic monuments, folklore, classical literature, miniature paintings, European artists’ canvases, historical documents, official reports, and the scientific research studies of European, Russian, American, and, of course, Azerbaijani scientists.
Origins of Carpet Weaving in Azerbaijan
The origins of carpet weaving in Azerbaijan can be traced from the Bronze Age. Classical weaving was preceded by the weaving of various household items, such as mats (khesir) from plant fibers. Different types of bulrushes and reeds, flax, nettles, hemp, and many other suitable plants grow in Azerbaijan, providing a rich raw material base for the development of weaving. The abundance of spindles of the Eneolithic period found during archeological digs throughout Azerbaijan show that weaving was a well-developed craft at that time. This is also evidenced by the fabric prints on vessels and remains of primitive looms of the Eneolithic period,1 as well as the remnants of carpet fabrics themselves in later monuments.
Weaving underwent further development in the Bronze and Early Iron Age. Many ceramic spindles and samples of so-called ceramic weaving have also been found in the monuments of this time. Convincing evidence has been found of the existence of simple looms in Azerbaijan in the archeological monuments of the Middle Bronze Age. Most likely, local weavers were also successful in assimilating fabric dying in the reviewed period.
1 See: O. Abibullaev, Eneolit i bronza na territorii Nakhichevanskoi ASSR, Baku, 1982, p. 223.
Herodotus speaks of the high level of dying in the classical period.2 Despite the use of plant fiber in weaving during the Early Bronze Age, weaving with wool became the main trend at this time, which was largely promoted by the rapid development of sheep breeding. In many archeological monuments of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age remnants of fabrics have been found. An analysis of these fabrics showed their wool and flax origin. It was precisely in the Bronze and Early Iron Age that the mobile lifestyle associated with cattle breeding gave rise to the emergence of carpet items— khurjun, chuval, heib, mafrash, and relatively light napless carpets.
It was at this time (in the 2nd century B.C.) that classical piled carpet weaving appeared. According to researchers, woolen carpets already existed in the Bronze Age in the 2nd century B.C.3 For example, in the town of Maku4 the clay statue of a horse was found with a floral carpet saddlecloth.5 It was probably at this time that carpet weavers borrowed many of the designs that arose in earlier weaving, which later, after disappearing on fabrics and in ceramics, survived to our day on carpet items. For example, the original shape-generating group of carpet motifs is formed by ancient designs that have a multi-century history of development. These designs often have many similarities on ceramic and metal items of the Bronze Age. These shapes also formed the basis of the aesthetic-artistic expression of the Azerbaijani carpet later and can be clearly traced on modern carpets. The geometric design is the most characteristic of Azerbaijani carpets. Azerbaijan is one of those areas where abstract-geometric designs traced from as early as the Bronze Age survived in the same stylistic interpretation in our day and age. The art of neighboring territories does not have the same ancient layer of geometric designs that form the basis of patterns on carpets. The designs found on carpets were also broadly represented in ancient ceramics. Whereby the repetition of not only individual elements, drawings, motifs, and so on is obvious, but also of entire themes and designs.
Intricate rituals, particularly the cult of fertility, were an integral part of the religious practice of Zoroastrism, which reflected on the nation’s artistic world outlook. Right up until today, the traditional design has survived with precise division into four parts with a central medallion associated with the symbols of the sun and the four seasons.
Monuments of art and historical sources are evidence of the high traditions of carpet weaving on the territory of historical Azerbaijan. Greek historian Xenophon (5th century B.C.)6 pointed out that the Persians learned how to use carpets from the Midians (one of the Azerbaijanis’ distant ancestors). Many facts about carpet weaving in Azerbaijan are referred to by medieval authors. Chinese traveler of the 7th century Huan-Tes-ank calls Azerbaijan a large carpet manufacturing center.7 Albanian historian of the 7th century Moses Kalankatui talks about the manufacture of silk fabric and variegated many-colored carpets in the northern part of Azerbaijan and their use in the everyday life of the nobility.8
Armenian historian Sebeos mentions a multitude of carpets when talking about the booty seized in 628 by Byzantine emperor Hercules in Nakhchivan. Archeological data also reaffirm this. Remains of a loom, carpet weaving tools, remains of wool thread, pieces of felt, decomposed carpets and rugs were found in the catacombs of the 7th century.9 Arab historians of the 10th century report on the large-scale manufacture of “zili” and prayer mats in the Azerbaijani towns of Nakhchivan, Khoi, Bargi, and Bildis, as well as on the production of rugs and madder dyes.10
2 See: V. Latyshev, Izvestiia drevnikh pisatelei v Skifii i Kavkaz, Vol. 1, St. Petersburg, 1890, p. 7.
3 See: L. Karimov, Azerbaidzhanskiy kover, Vol. 2, Baku, 1983, p. 10.
4 Located in historical Southern Azerbaijan—contemporary northern Iran.
5 See: Barrasikhaie tarikhi, Tehran, No. 3, 1939.
6 See: Xenophon, Cyropaedia, Vol. 8, Moscow, 1976, p. 216.
7 See: L. Karimov, op. cit., pp. 12, 16.
8 See: M. Kalankatuiskiy, Istoriia Agvan, St. Petersburg, 1861, pp. 158, 161, 181.
9 See: Istoria Azerbaidzhana, Vol. 1, Baku, 1958, p. 74.
10 See: Khudud al-Alem, Rukopis’ Tumanskogo, Leningrad, 1930, pp. 32b, 33a.
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Information about carpets is often found in folklore, dastans (ornate oral history that forms an important part of the Turkic literature of Central Asia), and, in particular, in the famous epos of the 11th century Kitabi Dede Korkut (The Book of Dede Korkut). Many valuable facts about Azerbaijani carpets can be found in classical Azerbaijani literature. For example, Nizami and Hagani (12th century) mention carpets woven from silk using threads of precious metals.11 Medieval European travelers also provide interesting information on the high level of Azerbaijan’s weaving and carpet weaving. In the 13th century, Marco Polo talked about the unique fabrics produced in Tabriz. These fabrics were exported to Europe by Venetian and Genoese merchants. At the same time, Frenchman William of Rubruck visited Derbent, Shemakha, Nakhchivan, and other cities, and noted that many good carpets were produced there which covered the floors and walls of the mosques and palaces of the Azerbaijani rulers.12
But it was not only the lives of the members of the upper classes of medieval society in Azerbaijan that passed in the company of carpets. For example, Englishmen Bannister and Ducket, who visited Shirvan in the 16th century, related that the homes of the residents had few adornments apart from carpets and copper items. “They sit on the floor, on a rug, their legs drawn up like tailors. There is no one, even the most ordinary person, who does not sit on a rug (good or bad): the entire house or entire room where they sit is covered in carpets.”13
From what they said, it is obvious that all the strata of population in medieval Azerbaijan made wide use of carpets and rugs in everyday life. In the 16th century, English merchants, agents of the English Muscovy Company, came to Azerbaijan, particularly to Shirvan, along the Volga-Caspian route. Englishmen A. Jenkinson, R. Chinny, A. Edwards, T. Bannister, and E. Ducket left valuable information about the Azerbaijani carpets of the mid-16th century.14
The travelers of the 17th-18th centuries also provide us with valuable information about carpets. For example, German Adam Olearius, who traveled from Derbent to Baku and then to Shemakha, notes that the peasants’ houses are very clean and tidy and the floors are covered with carpets. Scottish doctor Bell also provides similar information, who while serving in Russia in 1715-1718 visited Derbent, Baku, Shemakha, and Tabriz. When describing the everyday life of the residents of Shirvan, he noted that the floors there were covered with carpets and mats. He also said that Tabriz boasted extensive trade in fabrics and carpets.15 In the 19th century, essentially all the travelers, officials, ethnographic specialists, and other researchers who visited Azerbaijan provided us with reports on the large number of splendid carpets in use among all strata of the population.
In his fundamental research study A Survey of Persian Art, outstanding American scientist Arthur Pope writes that the conditions in Azerbaijan were conducive to all types of art, including carpet weaving... Carpet weaving in Azerbaijan must have been an ancient art... It is not surprising that civilization in this region arose at an early time, possibly earlier than anywhere else. At the beginning of the 12th century, carpet weaving in Northwest Persia (localized by Azerbaijan) beyond doubt achieved the status of a fine art and it is very possible that it achieved this high status for the first time precisely in this region. This might explain why far more “Great Carpets” came from this region than from the whole of the rest of Persia put together.16
An analysis of the written sources makes it possible to confirm that Azerbaijani carpets were an export item throughout the Middle Ages and on into the subsequent period. They were exported,
11 See: L. Kerimov, Azerbaidzhanskiy kover, Vol. 1, Baku, 1961, pp. 8-9.
12 See: K. Alieva, Bezvorsovye kovry Azerbaidzhana, Baku, 1988, p. 9.
13 Puteshestvenniki ob Azerbaidzhane, ed. by H.E. Shakhmaliev, Vol. 1, Baku, 1961, pp. 34, 83, 157, 180.
14 See: L. Iunusova, Torgovaia ekspansiia Anglii v basseine Kaspiia v pervoi polovine XVIII v., Baku, 1986.
15 See: Puteshestvenniki ob Azerbaidzhane, pp. 260, 391, 401, 402.
16 See: A.U. Pope (ed.), with Phyllis Ackerman, A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Time to the Present, Oxford University Press, London, New-York, 1938-1939; Meiji-Shobo, Tokyo, 1965, Vols. VI, III. 110771, 1181a-1184, 1203-4a.
whereby not only to the neighboring countries of the East, but also to Europe, where they rapidly became part of European everyday life.
The Carpet and Cultural Dialog
There can be no doubt that many other factors, including political, economic, and ethnic, also had an influence on the development of the Azerbaijani carpet. The Caucasian region with its unique natural and climatic characteristics has always attracted numerous tribes and nationalities, who often settled in compact groups there. Over time, they all blended with the indigenous population, introducing their own elements into its art and culture as a whole, including into carpet weaving. Many of these elements, which were processed in the spirit of the local artistic tradition, enriched and developed the artistic characteristics of the Azerbaijani carpet. So in the Azerbaijani carpet, along with such a stable and dominating traditional principle of aesthetic influence as the geometric interpretation of the designs, combination of images of animals and plant ornaments, and a specific color range, elements can also be found that appeared as a result of the interaction with the cultural traditions of Anterior and Central Asia, Iran, India, China, and other countries. This was the natural mutual influence of different cultures of people who had been in long historical and cultural contact and mutually enriching relations with each other. In so doing, the aesthetic value of the Azerbaijani carpet was always in the fact that it preserved the traditions of ancient weaving.
The Great Silk Road played an enormous role in the establishment and development of the Azerbaijani carpet. In the 13th century, Azerbaijan maintained close economic trade and cultural ties with China. Chinese motifs and themes appeared in Azerbaijani decorative applied art and architecture which, intertwining with local ideas, presented the world with a series of so-called dragon carpets of the 16th-17th centuries. The dragon is the most popular and most frequently used image in Azerbaijani carpet art. The mythological views of the Azerbaijanis have been associated since ancient times with the image of the dragon, which embodies the power of Evil that is supplemented with the favorable image of the Chinese dragon. The design of these carpets was directly associated with the art tradition of the Far East. Chinese porcelain and textiles, which figured in trans-Asian trade between Azerbaijan and China, were a source of motifs for dragon carpets.
Dragon carpets were further developed in the 19th-20th centuries, right up to the present, in unusual compositional developments of Azerbaijan’s local artistic carpet schools.
The Azerbaijani Carpet in Europe
At the end of the 13th-beginning of the 14th century, active trade along the Great Silk Road helped to export an enormous number of carpets to Europe from Central Asia, Azerbaijan, and Turkey. These carpets became part of European everyday life.
The depictions on frescoes and paintings by Italian artists of the 14th-15th centuries show the popularity of Azerbaijani carpet art of this period.
Today the influence of carpets on the Florence art school and on Byzantine fabric is generally recognized: the color range of the paintings of the early Italian Renaissance was distinguished by its vibrancy and color contrasts, while crimson decorations, circles with relief depictions of lions, drag-
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ons, and birds predominated in fabric designs. All of these differences were characteristic of Azerbaijani carpets. Any art can develop only on a national basis. If the artists of this nation raise and resolve world problems, the local forms of art become the property of mankind as a whole. Without this synthesis there cannot be any art.
Active trade with China along the corridors of the Great Silk Road at the end of the 13th-begin-ning of the 14th century via the Black Sea, Southern Caucasus, then the Caspian Sea and on through Central Asia promoted the export of an enormous number of carpets to Europe from Central Asia, Azerbaijan (the Caucasus, Northwest Persia), and Turkey. Azerbaijani carpets began finding their way to Europe in enormous quantities as early as the 14th century. And this was not an accidental phenomenon. At this time, Azerbaijan’s economy and culture, which was in a state of decline after the destructive Mongol conquest of the 13th century, underwent revival and close trade ties were established with Europe. In the 14th century such trade was under the control of the Viennese and Genoese merchants. It is worth noting that Gustave Colet in his book Oriental Influence on the Paintings of Tuscany expressed the opinion that the Southern Caucasus or even Northern Persia (the historical territory of Azerbaijan) came as a possible source of carpets which used Chinese themes.
In medieval Europe these carpets were very popular and widely used in everyday life: they were used to spread on floors, cover tables and gravestones, and hang on walls. Carpets were often hung at public celebrations, at which they played the same role as flags or banners at contemporary celebrations in Europe. These were customs that came with the carpets to Europe during the Renaissance. Carpets hanging over balcony rails at a Venetian celebration were depicted in a painting by artist Carpaccio. At this time, valuable personal carpet collections were formed in Europe. The papacy has owned carpets since the times of Giotto; the import of carpets was designated in inventory lists (since 1295) as Moorish, Turkish, Tatar (Azerbaijani). It is a well-known fact that great artists, in particular, Rembrandt and Rubens, purchased magnificent carpets. Italian, Dutch, and French artists of the era depicted carpets on their frescoes, canvases, and tapestries, thus appreciating and appraising them according to merit.
Impressive evidence of the popularity of the images of Azerbaijani carpet art of this period is their depiction with animal themes on the frescoes and paintings of the Italian artists of the 14th-15th centuries. These are themes of “solitary birds” on the paintings of Giotto, Niccolo di Buonac-corso, Piccio di Simone, and Cola di Petrucelli, the frescoes of Ambrogio in the Palazzo Pubblico of Siena; the tree themes with “opposite birds” in the painting by Simone Martini and on the fresco of Niccolo di Pietro Gerini “Calling of Saint Matthew;” and the images of animals in the paintings of the Sasseta school and Taddeo Gaddi. The carpets included in the designs of these canvases became an integral part of the paintings, comprised a single whole with them, and formed the overall style and color scheme of these pieces of art. Today the influence of carpets on Tuscany art and Byzantine fabrics is generally recognized: the color range of the paintings of the early Italian Renaissance was distinguished by its vibrancy and color contrasts, while crimson decorations, circles with relief depictions of lions, dragons, and birds predominated in fabric designs, and all of these differences were characteristic of Azerbaijani carpets. The Renaissance artists, who were talented and sensitive to everything beautiful, were charmed and inspired by the beauty of Azerbaijani carpets, and in their depictions they came out before their contemporaries and descendants as examples of great art.
After becoming part of European everyday life, Azerbaijani carpets were depicted on the canvases of many European artists in the 15th-16th centuries, too. For example, we see the Karabakh carpet “Mugan” in the paintings of Hans Memling (15th century) “Madonna and Child”17 and “Por-
? M. Babenchikov, Narodnoe dekorativnoe iskusstvo Zakavkazia, Moscow, 1948, p. 84.
trait of a Young Man.”18 Azerbaijani Ganja and Gazakh carpets are depicted in a painting “The Ambassadors” by German artist Hans Holbein (16th century), “The Annunciation”19 by Venetian artist Carlo Crivelli (15th century), and “St. Sebastian” by another Italian artist Antonello di Messina (15th century). We see Azerbaijani carpets on a fresco in the Cathedral of Santa Maria in Siena by artist Domenico di Bartolo called “The Marriage of the Foundlings,” in a painting by Domenico Moron “The Birth of St. Thomas,” on the tapestry “Lady with a Unicorn” (15th century) from France,20 and in many other paintings by European artists.21
The range of carpets on the canvases of these artists grew, while simple and natural combinations and forms, as well as vibrancy and diversity of color scheme became the aesthetics of the Renaissance, which was also characteristic of the carpets with geometric designs of this time. In addition, beginning in the 15 th century, imitations of Azerbaijani carpets were noted in Europe, and today they are an integral part of European everyday life, as well as valuable exhibits in museums and private collections of Europe.
The Azerbaijani carpet has always been a synthesis of many aesthetic origins, particularly during the tempestuous development of the Eastern culture. Remaining traditional in their spirit and design, carpets featured the most diverse themes of the reality, their creators gleaned motifs from literature, and creatively assimilated the art of miniature painting. The 16th century, which went down in Azerbaijani history as the golden era of its culture, is typical in this respect. The genuine masterpieces of carpet making of that time combined the subtlety and exquisiteness of miniature art and a vibrant and diverse color range with the traditional ornamental-two dimensional solution of motifs and conventionality of color.
The entire history of the development of carpets shows that artisans were unusually sensitive to the spirit of the times and to universal values. Hunting themes, which appeared as early as the times of ancient rock drawings, traditional carpet designs, such as “Dord fasil” (“Four Seasons”) with its precise division into four parts reflecting cult worship of the seasons of the year, traditional elements of national decor, a conventional color scheme, precise correlation of the central area and border of the carpet, and clearly established depictive techniques presented in horizontal, diagonal, or vertical symmetry are all inevitably found in the carpets of different centuries.
The hunting carpets of the 16th century are an example of the extreme sensitivity of carpet-making artisans to the demands of their time. The magnificence of the royal hunt and the splendor of the collective hunt of the feudal nobility were reflected in carpets in the true national spirit both in terms of theme interpretation and ornamental design. The hunt is presented as a manifestation of courage, human audacity, and the eternal harmony and antagonism in nature. Remaining truly national in spirit, content, and form, they reveal the universal philosophy of life, the fight against natural disasters, the governing laws of nature, and the truly human feelings of love, valor, and beauty.
The aesthetic ideas about life rooted in the distant past and reborn over the centuries in clearly established forms have invariably undergone development. It was precisely in Tabriz and Ardabil at the beginning of the 16th century that a new curved vegetative ornament was elaborated and brought to perfection in carpet making, which prompted the appearance and development of new designs, such as “Agajli,” “Liachak-turunj,” “Afshan,” “Sheikh Safi,” and “Shah Abbasy.” The classical examples of these carpets, which American scientist Arthur Pope called “Great,” can be found in the collections of the Poldi Piezzoli Museum in Milan, the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, the
18 K. Alieva, op. cit., p. 10.
19 L. Kerimov, Azerbaidzhanskiy kover, Vol. 2, pp. 17, 24.
20 See: R.S. Taghieva, “Gobelen s shirvanskim kovrom,” Bakinskiy rabochiy, 11 January, 1997.
21 See: M. Guliev, “Azerbaidzhanskie kovry na dvukh polotnakh evropeiskikh khudozhnikov XV v.,” Reports of the Azerbaijani S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, Vol. 30, No. 7, 1969.
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Budapest Museum of Decorative Art, the New York Metropolitan Museum, and the Paris Museum of Decorative Art. The Tabriz 16th century carpet “Sheikh Safi,” which is kept in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London is considered one of the pinnacles of Azerbaijan’s carpet art of this period.
The golden era of the 16th century, when art was called upon to reflect the splendor and might of the royal dynasty, was replaced in the 17th-18th centuries by a period in which the central authorities flagged and court-declamatory art went into decline, which promoted a new revival in age-old folk traditions. As early as the second half of the 18th century, the role of local art schools increased with the formation of separate independent khanate states on the territory of Azerbaijan. Local carpet-making centers quickly began freeing themselves from the professional influence of miniature painting. It was at this time that the oldest archaic layers of archetypes resounded in the people’s minds with renewed strength, which in a certain sense can be seen as the beginning of a return to the original traditions. The folk traditions of carpet making began to be revived in carpets: we again see the twodimensional design, the geometric interpretation of ornamental motifs, and repeat in the design of the compositional theme, conceived anew, which became characteristic of the carpet art of the 19th-20th centuries.
The local khan rulers quickly monopolized the whole of external trade, including carpet trade in the foreign market. In Karabakh, as M.D. Isaev notes, who received information at the beginning of the 20th century from the oldest carpet makers of the territory, the khans tried to set up exemplary carpet manufacturing in their residences. In the early 19th century, carpet drawings and sketches that the local artisans call “khancheshni,” which means khan drawing, were preserved in many places in Azerbaijan. This tradition continued to spread even more throughout the 19th century. For example, there is a carpet at the State Historical Museum in Moscow manufactured in the village of Hila not far from Baku with the inscription and date “1801. Karkhanei Hila.”22
The rapid growth of commercial carpet manufacture in Shirvan, Karabakh, Guba, and Baku was analyzed in detail by Russian researcher M.D. Isaev, who noted that the khans levied tax on the population in the form of piled carpets and palases, keeping in mind the possibility of later selling them beyond the borders of their khanates.23
After conquering the Transcaucasus (at the beginning of the 19th century), Russia also began rapidly assimilating the local carpet market. S.I. Gulishambarov noted an increase in carpet manufacture for export throughout the entire 19th century.24 In addition to Russia, where most of the export naturally went, the main purchasers of Azerbaijani carpets in the 19th century were England, Turkey, Germany, France, the U.S., and several Eastern countries. The export value of the Azerbaijani carpet remained immutable throughout the 20th century until today.
The continuously growing interest in Oriental, including Azerbaijani, carpets has given rise to the need for their serious scientific study and systemization. West European scientists take the lead in this matter. The merit of the first foreign researchers lies in the fact that it was they who generated universal interest in Azerbaijani carpets and opened up the amazing world of the carpet, its aesthetics, and its complex philosophy to Europe.
Another indisputable merit of foreign researchers of Oriental carpet art is the fact that they were the first to identify the main carpet zones of Azerbaijan (Tabriz, Ardabil, Ganja, Gazakh, Karabakh, Guba, Shirvan, and Baku), and this division formed the basis for the artistic classification of Azerbaijani carpets.
Many Western European carpet weavers selected valuable samples of Azerbaijani carpet art from different collections, beginning from the 14th century right up to the present, and presented
22 Karkhanei is the common name for any crafts workshop.
23 See: M. Isaev, Kovrovoe proizvodstvo Zakavkazia, Tiflis, 1932, pp. 13, 14.
24 See: S. Gulishambarov, Obzor fabrik i zavodov Zakavkazskogo kraia, Tiflis, 1894.
them for public viewing. Among the works of foreign scientists, including American, we can note the following studies by A. Riegel, R. Neugebauer and A. Orendel, R. Neugebauer and S. Trol, A. Di-ley, W. Bode, A. Pope, F. Kelly and M. Gentles, G. Lewis, and K. Erdmann. The works of contemporary foreign researchers such as J. Chabari, M. Ropers, J. Milhofer, U. Schurmann, M. Behazin, F. Lettenmair, G. Ruedin, K. Larson, J. May, Ch. Ellis, S. Azadi, R. Wright, and others are of immense interest.
Historical Carpet Weaving Centers in Azerbaijan, Types of Carpets, Main Technological Manufacturing Processes
The birth of carpet art is very justifiably associated with the manufacture of non-piled napless carpets that fulfilled numerous utilitarian functions: “palases,” “kilims,” “jejimi,” “shedde,” “verni,” “sumakh,” “zili,” and many other types were used for covering wagons, as awnings, as canopies and curtains, and for covering floors. But it was precisely in the manufacture of these items of basic necessity that the artistic genius of the people and their unique way of thinking began to be fully manifested.
Since the early days of weaving, napless Azerbaijani carpets have been distinguished by their compositional richness, exquisite colors, and high manufacturing technique. This made it possible for the author of the monograph Oriental Carpets published in 1922 in Germany to presume that knotted piled carpets first appeared in the Caucasus, since woven fabrics in general, particularly kilims, were better manufactured here than in other places.
Azerbaijani carpets differ greatly in form, purpose, and artistic design. This is confirmed by the existence of different sizes of carpets that have a specific designation. It is enough to name several types of carpets: small “khalcha” and “giaba,”
“namazlyk”—prayer mats, “takht-ustu,”
“domanak”—bedside rugs, large “khali,” sets consisting of three-five carpets “Dast khali-giaba” intended for spacious
rooms, and several others. The <<Pjrjabedil» carpet.
The richness of ideas in any type Guba, Azerbaijan, 19th century.
of art also gives nse to the nchness of State Museum of Azerbaijani Carpet.
forms and hues of expression. When Baku
The “Arjiman” carpet. Shirvan. Azerbaijan. End of 19th century.
State Museum of Azerbaijani Carpet. Baku
talking about the Azerbaijani carpet, mention must be made of the general trends in carpet art and of the local schools of Azerbaijani carpet weaving. The classification of carpets is always relative since no school can avoid the influence of another. Even when the matter concerns the individual work of artisans, there are always general national trends that determine the overall aesthetic principles of items. At present, in terms of style, artistic nature, and manufacturing techniques, seven prominent schools of Azerbaijani carpets can be singled out: Guba, Shirvan, Ganja, Gazakh, Karabakh, and Tabriz.
Over the many-century development of carpet weaving in Azerbaijan, stable carpet-making centers have formed, the appearance and development of which, as noted, was associated with the existence of a raw material base, sheep breeding. The main ones among them at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries were Shirvan, Guba, Baku, Karabakh, Ganja, Gazakh, Ardabil, Tabriz, Urmia, and Ma-raga.
The Guba carpet region is divided into three sub-regions: mountainous, piedmont, and lowland. Manufacture concentrated in the villages of Gonakhkend, Khashi, Jimi, Afurja, Erfi, Sekhiub, Bu-dug, Gyryz, Jek, Khan, and Salmesoiud belongs to the mountainous center. Guba carpets are known for the high density of their weave, exquisite designs, and subtle color scheme. The geometricized shapes of their design are mainly based
on stylized floral and sometimes animal themes. Medallion designs are very po-pular.
The most vibrant designs of Guba carpets are “Giadim minaria,” “Gymyl,” and “Piriabedil,” and the most specific, which are characteristic of this zone in particular, are the “Alpan,” “Guba,” “Gaji-gaib,” and some other designs. Napless carpets (sumakhs and palases) were also manufactured in Guba.
The Shirvan carpets are distinguished by their rich artistic workmanship, dense weave, and luster of the wool used, which gave the carpet a velvety look. The most well-known designs of Shirvan carpets are “Gabystan,” “Shemakha,” “Shirvan,” “Gashed,” “Ardjiman,” “Jemjemli,” “Garkhun,” “Gajigabul,” “Gabala,” “Salian,” and others. Shirvan was also famous for its napless carpets—palases and kilims, and in the olden days for its sumakhs. The napless carpets manufactured in the villages of Pashaly and Udulu enjoyed world renown. Shirvan has also long been fa-
mous for the manufacture of a wide variety of carpet items—bags (chuvals), saddlebags (khurjuns), mafrashes, horsecloths (chul), and so on.
The Baku carpet region was concentrated in the Absheron Peninsula. Carpet making became developed in the villages of Novkhany, Nardaran, Biul-biuli, Fatmai, Pirshagi, Mardakiany, Gala, and beyond Absheron, in the Khyzy carpet center (the villages of Khyzy, Zarat, Gaadi, Novkhany, Kesh, Khil, and others). The carpets manufactured in this carpet-making center in the 19th century brought it world renown and they are still kept in many of the world’s museums today.
On the whole, Baku carpets are similar to those of Guba and Shirvan in their technical qualities, but they noticeably differ from them in the artistic respect. Baku carpets are characterized by greater softness of fabric, intensive dyes, unusual artistic taste, and exquisite workmanship. Baku carpets are based on medallion and symmetric designs with geometric motifs and extremely stylized floral elements. The most widespread were the “Baki,” “Surakhany,” “Geradil,” “Fyndygan,” “Khilia-afshan,” “Khilia-buta,” and “Absheron” designs. In the Baku carpet-weaving region, palases, kilims, kheibia, and zili were also manufactured which surpassed similar items of other regions in terms of their qualities.
Ganja and Gazakh carpets are manufactured in two centers: in the Ganja center, the main manufacturers are the cities and towns of Ganja, Gadabek, Goran-
The «Khilia-buta» carpet.
Baku. Azerbaijan.
Hegira 1332-1914.
State Museum of Azerbaijani Carpet. Baku
boy, Shamkir, and Samukh, and in the Gazakh center—Gazakh, Tavuz, and Borchaly. The existence of large cities in this region—Ganja and Gazakh, which use a large number of carpets—stimulated commercial production. Among the Ganja models, carpets with “Ganja,” “Kekhna-Ganja,” “Geda-bek,” “Chirakhly,” “Samukh,” “Chayly,” “Shadly,” and “Fakhraly” designs were distinguished, and the most popular compositions in the Gazakh group were “Shikhly,” “Demirchiliar,” “Oisuzlu,” “Borchaly,” “Gazakh,” “Garachop,” “Garaiazy,” “Salakhly,” “Gachagan,” “Kemerli,” “Gara-koiun-lu,” “Gaymagly,” and “Geycheli.” Some historical carpet weaving hubs in the Gazakh center are currently located in Georgia, where Azerbaijanis compactly live, and in Armenia, where they also lived in many regions (until the end of the 20th century).
Napless carpet items were also manufactured in Gazakh: zili, shedde, verni, mafrashes, chuls, kheibias, and so on. The manufacture of namazlyg mats occupied a significant place here. In the
The “Geycheli” carpet.
Gazakh. Azerbaijan.
End of the 19th century.
State Museum of Azerbaijani Carpet. Baku
technological aspect, Ganja and Gazakh carpets compared with Guba and Shir-van carpets were less dense and had higher pile.
Karabakh carpets were manufactured in two centers—mountainous and lowland. In the mountainous manufacturing center, the town of Shusha and the villages of Dashbulag, Dovshanly, Gi-rov, Malybeyli, Chanakhcha, Tug, Ta-glar, Gadrut, Muradkhanly, Gasymush-agy, Gubadly, Gogaz, Mishseid, Bagyr-beyli, Khanlyg, and Tutmas dominated in the 19th century. A special feature of the mountainous center was that here commercial manufacture in the villages was less developed than in Shusha. Here such carpets were woven as “Cheliabi,” “Aran,” “Goja,” “Achma-Iumma,” “Sha-balyd-buta,” “Bakhmanly,” and “Mugan.” The carpets of the Talysh-Lenkoran and Nakhchivan manufacturing centers also belong to the Karabakh type of carpets. Here “Talysh” and “Nakhchivan” carpets were the most popular.
The Karabakh zone is famous both for its piled and napless carpets, as well as carpet items. The carpets of this group are both large and small. “Dast khali-gebe” carpet sets were particularly popular, which were in great demand both in the internal and external market. Carpets with both a low pile and highly dense weave and less dense carpets with a high pile were manufactured in Karabakh. The former were mainly characteristic of Shusha and the lowland manufacturing areas, while the latter were characteristic of the mountainous areas. In Karabakh,
medallion, thematic and ornamental carpets were manufactured. The most popular designs were “Buynuz,” “Balyg,” “Darianur,” “Bakhchadagiullar,” “Sakhsydagiulliar,” “Khanlyg,” “Khantirme,” “Tasymushagy,” Minakhani,” and “Bulut.”
The Tabriz carpet school, which included Tabriz and the Ardabil, Zenjan, Khalkhal, Urmia, Maranu, Garadag, and Maraga carpet-manufacturing regions related to it, is in Iran (in Southern Azerbaijan) and, unfortunately, its items are more often than not presented in scientific publications, catalogues, and exhibitions of many museums as Persian carpets, which introduces confusion into the classification and study of the history of Azerbaijani carpet weaving as a whole.
The Tabriz manufacturing center focuses on the following designs of carpets: “Liachek-Tu-runj,” “Buta,” “Balyg,” “Afghan,” Ovchulug,” “Sutunlu,” “Shah-Abbasy,” and “Sheikh Safi.” Most of the designs are composed of floral ornamental motifs, but in the village manufacturing centers
purely geometrical designs are customarily used which are close to the North Azerbaijani manufacturing centers in style and color palette.
Tabriz carpets are known for their delicate and intricate floral designs with flexible, gently intertwining shapes and exquisite system of spiral patterns. The pattern in the middle of Tabriz carpets is either dense and fills the entire area or features a medallion design.
It was in Tabriz in the 15th-16th centuries that many “Great Carpet” designs were formed that brought the carpets of the region world renown. Researchers have repeatedly noted the influence of the Tabriz carpet school on the establishment of carpet weaving throughout Iran. It was here in the Middle Ages that the manufacture of carpets rose from the handicraft applied arts to the level of supreme art.
A special feature of the Zenjan center is the barberry background and “Norshar,” “Tarush,” and “Sultani” designs worked against this background.
The towns of Gerov and Miiane along with the nearby villages form the Khalkhal carpet center. A special feature of the carpets of this center is the characteristic golden color and “gera” patterns, and the design “silsilevi-liachek” against a light brown, white, or beige background.
Carpets of the Urmia center repeat those of the Tabriz center in terms design and ornaments of the central area; the “tarzi” design is specific for this region, which is composed of an intricate border strip.
The carpets of the Garadag manufacturing center are distinguished by a red, blue, and black background with a geometrical or geometricized floral pattern. The town of Germe is the heart of this center along with the neighboring population settlements of Mekhriban, Geravan, Kiulvanag, Kivedne, and Khoja. The “Gellu-giusheli,” “Kheris,” “Garaja,” “Bakhsheyish,” “Achma-Iumma,” and “Sarabi” designs predominate on the carpets of the Garadag center.
The Ardabil manufacturing center, in addition to the town of Ardabil itself and nearby villages, includes the Serab, Mir, Nar, Meshkinshakher, and other settlements. Here, on the whole, the “Danaly” and “Arch” designs are used, for which a checked pattern in the center field is characteristic.
The “Malybeyli” carpet. Karabakh. Azerbaijan.
Hegira 1229-1813.
State Museum of Azerbaijani Carpet. Baku
The “Agajly” carpet.
Tabriz. Azerbaijan.
End of the 19th century.
State Museum of Azerbaijani Carpet. Baku
The Marand manufacturing center includes the towns of Marand, Khoi, Maku, Salmas, Safiian, as well as the surrounding areas. The Tabriz school also bore a strong influence on this center. Here mainly “Liachek-Turunj” and thematic carpets such as “Sutunlu” were manufactured.
The Maraga manufacturing center includes the towns of Maraga, Tilib, San-gachaly, Binab, Khalasa, and Khash-taruz-charoimag. The designs “Balyg,” “Liachek-Turdunj,” and especially “Gyzyl-gul” composed of floral patterns are mostly spread in this manufacturing center.
When distinguishing the technological features of the carpets of Southern Azerbaijan, it should be noted that in Tabriz and Ardabil, where highly professional production was concentrated, silk carpets were manufactured, while in the Middle Ages carpets with metallic (silver and gold) threads were also made. The local carpets are distinguished by a dense weave and low pile.
Protection of the Azerbaijani Carpet
Unfortunately, Azerbaijani carpets are frequently presented at various exhibitions as Iranian, Caucasian, Turkish, Kurdish, Armenian, and many others. The ethnic map of Azerbaijan is diverse— many nationalities live here who have historically been in close sociocultural contact. It stands to reason that the use and weaving of carpets also became part of their everyday life and culture. Foreign researchers, repeatedly emphasizing the superior qualities of Azerbaijani carpets, have pointed to their contribution to the establishment of carpet weaving of many nationalities and to the interesting samples of Azerbaijani carpet weaving that spread throughout the entire Caucasus. In so doing, they noted that the artistic content of these samples bore no creative momentum, since they were largely not the best copies of the Azerbaijani originals.
In his book Carpet Art of the Transcaucasus, M.D. Isaev notes in particular that carpet weaving was especially prominent on the northern shore of Lake Geicha (now Sevan), around which Azerbaijani villages are dotted.25 Transcaucasian researcher Ia. Zedgenidze writes that the population of
’ See: M.D. Isaev, Kovrovoe proizvodstvo Zakavkazia, Tiflis, 1932, pp. 127-128.
Shusha (Karabakh) is mainly composed of Azerbaijanis and it is they who are mainly engaged in carpet weaving, while the Armenians have to learn carpet weaving from them.26
When studying the group of Shusha carpets, American scientist George O. Bannon noted two rugs woven by Armenians and Kurds, whereby stressing that they are copies of local carpets and not better, being inferior to them both in terms of artistic and technical, as well as color resolu-tion.27 Prominent American scientist Arthur Pope writes in his article entitled “The Myth of the Armenian Dragon Carpet” that there is no significant proof in favor of the Armenian origin of dragon carpets, but there are good reasons to believe that carpets of this type could not have been woven there.
We will primarily note that no record or even any local tradition shows that carpet weaving ever existed in Armenia. The Armenians themselves, many of whom were born and raised in different parts of Armenia, admit that they have never heard of Armenian carpets. Moreover, if these dragon carpets really are Armenian, why can we not find any traces of their patterns or, at least, something like them in the various decorative arts that are known as Armenian? There is nothing in Armenia’s architectural design or various paintings that shows any connection to the characteristic patterns of dragon carpets. Arthur Pope goes on to say that a dragon carpet from the George Meyers collection bears the signature of a Muslim weaver of Turkic origin, a race that worked for itself and wove its own carpets. This signature is particularly important, emphasizes the scientist, since it correlates with a very clear tradition that existed in the Caucasus (Guba, Shirvan, Karabakh, and others), at least until recently.28
The Gazakh carpets featuring the “Battle of the Phoenix and the Dragon” theme and the traditional theme of a bird near the tree of life are presented as Anatolian, although Western scientists confidently classify these carpets as the Gazakh school of Azerbaijani carpets. For example, in his book Oriental Rugs, German researcher Fabio Formenton describes carpets of the Gazakh school featuring the “Battle of the Phoenix and Dragon” theme, referring to several other authors, and writes that in terms of stylistic and technical characteristics and the material used both carpets entirely correlate and can be dated to the same time, if not to the same place of origin, and to Gazakh in particular.29
It should be added that the motif of a dragon fighting a phoenix could not be represented in Turkish carpet weaving since both of these are benevolent symbols in the cultic tradition of the Turks. The tradition of the Azerbaijani carpet today declares “Many can repeat the Azerbaijani carpet, but only the Azerbaijanis can develop it.” The successful development of carpet art in Azerbaijan is promoted today by concern about its preservation. In 2004, the Law of the Azerbaijan Republic on Conservation and Development of Azerbaijani Carpet Art was adopted.30 At present, the government has adopted a decision to erect a new building for the Museum of Azerbaijani Carpet.
C o n c l u s i o n
In conclusion it should be noted that a certain level of knowledge is needed about countries, nationalities, and cultures for an intercivilizational dialog. All nationalities are interested in such a
26 See: Ia. Zedgenidze, Proizvodstvo kovrov i palasov v gorode Shushe Elisoetpolskoi gubernii, SMOMPK, 1891, Iss.11, p. 3.
27 See: G. O’Bannon, Oriental Rug Review, April/May 1990, pp. 12-16.
28 See: A. Pope, “The Myth of the Armenian Dragon Carpet,” in: Jahrbuch der asiatischen Kunst, Leipzig, 1925,
pp. 150, 152.
29 See: F. Formenton, Das Bush der Orientleppiche, Stuttgart, 1974, pp. 26, 27.
30 See: Law of the Azerbaijan Republic on Conservation and Development of Azerbaijani Carpet Art of 7 Decem-
ber, 2004, No. 799-IIG.
dialog, but it must be directed into the right channel, making efficient use of the cultural potential of the people.
Despite all of its uniqueness, the art of Azerbaijani carpet making developed and was enhanced in reciprocity with the cultures of many nationalities. By creating masterpieces of national creativity and crafts, our ancestors gave a signal to us in the 20th-21st centuries about the eternity of existence in the beauty of all-embracing harmony. This is not mystics, it is reality. Many creations of carpet art have plunged into the depths of history or been destroyed, while others have been forgotten, but their legacy will resound forever, continuing the chronicle of folk life in the vibrant images of universal values, harmony of rhythms, and rich variety of many-colored hues.
Elmir GULIEV
Ph.D. (Philos.), director of the Geoculture Department, Institute of Strategic Studies of the Caucasus
(Baku, Azerbaijan).
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION VS. RELIGIOUS RADICALISM IN ISLAM
Abstract
The author goes back to the roots of religious radicalism in the Islamic world and charts the ways it can be opposed. Having analyzed the Western political, economic, and cultural impact on the
Muslim civilization he concludes that the Muslim countries stand a chance of joining the globalization process on an equal footing with others if they are able to reform public consciousness.
I n t r o d u c t i o n
Throughout world history human ideas and human activities have been determined mainly by local factors (kinship ties, geographic location, social organization, and religion). In the past the horizons of many were limited to their native town or village. Globalization has done something more than merely change the forms of economic activity, it has changed the nature of human activity and people’s preferences and values. As part of the process, religion became an instrument for all kinds of political forces. In fact, its explosive potential has been exploited since time immemorial by politicians seeking their earthly aims. The first years of the new millennium marked by an upsurge of religious violence cannot be described as an exception. Here I intend to identify the causes of radicalism in contemporary Islam and answer the following questions: How do political and economic changes
