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55the connection between time and generations, prevent its break and create the basis for the future revival of Russia. To do this, they took on the task of introducing Russian identity, thinking, philosophy and culture to the countries to which they emigrated.
Teaching Russian literature abroad in the context of world literature, on the one hand, acquaints the world community with Russian culture, on the other hand, supports the spread of progressive ideas. It is no coincidence that the emigrants themselves laid the foundation for studying and researching the literature of the Russian diaspora. Today, the science of literary criticism, relying on these studies and traditions formed in the West, expands the study of the literature of the Russian diaspora and requires that literary materials presented under the name of world literature correspond to universal human values.
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2. Бочарова З.С. Российское зарубежье. 19201930 гг. как феномен отечественной истории: Учебное пособие. М.: АИРО, 2011, 304 стр. (in Russian)
3. Глэд Дж. Беседы в изгнании. М., 1991. (in Russian)
4. Kazimi P.F. Nizami ganjavi and turan (to 880 anniversary of the great poet) Asian Journal of Language, Literature and Culture Studies. 2021, Volume 4 [Issue 4] p.55-60 (in English) https://www.journalajl2c.com/index.php/AJL2C/articl e/view/30159
5. Елисеева Н. В. Российская эмиграция: некоторые проблемы современной отечественной литературы // Российское зарубежье: итоги и перспективы изучения: тезисы докладов и
сообщений научной конференции 17 ноября 1997 года. М., 1997. (in Russian)
6. Литературная энциклопедия русского зарубежья: 1918-1940. Писатели русского зарубежья / Гл. ред. и сост. А.Н.Николюкин. - М., 1997; Литературная энциклопедия русского зарубежья. 1918-1940. Периодика и литературные центры / Гл. ред. и сост. А.Н.Николюкин. - М., 2000; Литературная энциклопедия русского зарубежья. 19181940. Книги / Гл. ред. и сост. А.Н.Николюкин. - М., 2002. (in Russian)
7. Михайлов О.Н. Литература русского зарубежья. - М., 1995. (in Russian)
8. Назаров М.В. Миссия русской эмиграции. -Ставрополь : Кавказский край, 1992 - . Т. 1. - 1992.
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9. Публицистика русского зарубежья (19201940) / Сост. И.В.Кузнецов, Е.В.Зеленина. - М., 1999. (in Russian)
10. Революция и культура: сквозь призму времени: монография / Отв. ред. Н. Б. Кирил лова.
- Екатеринбург : Изд-во Урал. ун-та, 2017. - 222 с. (in Russian)
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LiNGUOCULTURAL FEATURES OF EUPHEMiSMS (BASED ON ENGLiSH AND AZERBAiJANi
MATERIALS)
Hasanova G.
Master, Languages University of Azerbaijan
Abstract
Linguocultural aspects of taboo and euphemism as a sign of language and culture are characterized by a new approach. The non-cultural trace is in the nature of the taboo. This cultural trace, if any, is inherent like a euphemism. The contact of these natures finds its place in modern times. We have also investigated the linguocultural aspects of taboo and euphemism in the paper submitted for defense based on materials of different systems of languages. It is a controversial issue that, in contrast to the taboo, the euphemism that replaces it is a cultural and social indicator of society as a linguocultural phenomenon.
We used observation, linguistic and comparative methods in writing this paper.
Keywords: linguoculturology, euphemism, taboo, slang, classification of euphemism
Language is a means of communication between individuals, and culture is a certain level of development of society. Language is an indicator of the influence of external factors on the language consciousness of members of a single society, people, and nation. Language is also a mirror of all social and historical processes in an intercultural nature. Language is a means of influencing another language and another culture. It is because the national characteristics of the language. And the culture of each ethnic group has a direct impact on the formation of the world in a way that is specific to the perception and representation of the world for the same ethnic group or social community.
The peculiar differences in the minds of people of different languages and cultures are the main reason for misunderstandings in intercultural and interlingual contacts. Belonging to one or another culture shapes the thinking of a particular community, and each national culture has its cultural meanings that have been fixed in the language.
Moreover, language becomes a crucial treasure trove of moral norms, beliefs, and norms of behavior in a separate social environment. Therefore, the representatives of a single nation or a definite society have common personality traits, a concrete type of thinking, and different patterns of behavior from the representatives of a certain nation.
One of the new fields of linguistics is linguocul-turology. Beginning in the 1990s, researchers began to investigate the languages previously studied in the context of extralinguistic or linguistic factors from a socio-cultural point of view. Thus, they could create the conditions for the mutual study of language and culture.
Language is sociological, that is, its relationship with the environment, in particular, the existence of language, dialect, literary language, etc. The field of study by exploring various forms such as is called social linguistics. Other disciplines also study and study language and culture. However, taking into account the peculiarities of language and culture, linguoculturol-ogy, a new field of sociolinguistics, was created.
An extremely important role in the world landscape belongs to the language units of culture - lin-guocultures. Linguoculturem is a complex, inter-level language unit, a dialectical unit of both linguistic and extralinguistic factors, a form of oral sign, a link between its semantic content and cultural meaning. Researchers have presented linguocultures in many different language forms, including words, word combinations, syntactic structures, pieces of text, and even whole text.
Different events are expressed in language. These events manifest themselves at various language levels. The phenomenon of taboo takes place at the lexical level.
Linguo-cultural analysis of taboos and euphemisms shows that while taboos are an event in the early stages of evolution and thought, euphemisms operate under the norms of high cultural society. The dimensions of the energy carried by these two nominations are also different in terms of impact.
Linguoculturology as a science was born of anthropological traditions. The directions of linguocul-tural research arose from the idea of the interaction of language and culture.
Linguocultural aspects of taboo and euphemism as a sign of language and culture are characterized by a new approach to it. The non-cultural trace is in the nature of the taboo. The cultural trace, if any, is inherent like a euphemism. The contact of these natures finds its place in modern times.
We have also investigated the linguocultural aspects of taboo and euphemism in the paper submitted for defense based on materials of different systems of languages. It is a controversial issue that, in contrast to the taboo, the euphemism that replaces it is a cultural and social indicator of society as a linguocultural phenomenon. The worldview of society, cultural and social development is inevitably studied in the linguocultural direction. The national-cultural specifics of civil society in the linguocultural aspect are clarified through euphemisms; the cultural sphere is reflected through language.
Euphemism is a word of Greek origin, a combination of the words "good" (ei) and "speak" (phemi), which means to speak politely. In linguistics, euphemisms are the development of more noble, culturally meaningful words instead of rude, vulgar, obscene words and expressions. It serves to soften the meaning, to express it in a more cultural form.
People try to avoid using words and expressions that are unpleasant, inappropriate, or embarrassing. They are afraid of hurting other people's feelings using such kinds of words and expressions. The consciously-avoided words and expressions are called "euphemisms". The word euphemism comes from the Greek word. Eu - good/ well + pheme - speech/speaking. Euphemism is the substitution of words or expressions for words and expressions that seem rough, unpleasant, or inconvenient to be pronounced. The people use euphemisms to get rid of the negative meaning or connotation the word or topic in question has. These include sex, death, killing, crime, disease, and different functions of the human body.
"Eupheme" refers to words and phrases that are used instead of religious concepts that are not etymo-logically appropriate or named, in other words, the opposite of blaspheme. Going into the depths of the etymology of this term, it seems that such words were needed at an early stage as a result of religious prohibitions. The oldest euphemisms are the names of gods whose expression is forbidden.
According to the researched sources, the following can be said about the groups of lexical-semantic meanings of euphemisms in English and Azerbaijani languages:
a) euphemisms related to family relations;
b) euphemisms for marriage and remarriage;
c) euphemisms related to the news delivered to the family.
Classification of euphemisms (J.Lawrence (1973), p.15):
• semantic methods of formation (a generalization of meaning, periphrasis, and metaphorization of meaning are considered to be the most productive methods of formation of political euphemisms);
• The most common areas of political euphemisms are politics and the military;
• The most "weak" aspects of public life that English speakers need to soften and hide are economic and business activities that cause a negative reaction (attitude), negative characteristics and qualities (public people), suffocation of freedom in government, totalitarian regime.
If we look at the comparative analysis of the structure of the word "political" in English, we see that this word is often closely related to the concepts of "government" and "state". In English, political euphemism is mainly used in government and administration, social movement, and public life.
Several researchers were engaged in the study of euphemisms (D.K. Zelenin, V. Havern, Ch. Kane, A.M. Kasev, H. Nurp, A. Kurkiyev, B.A. Larin, A. A. Kha-panskaya). There are four main thematic groups in the classification of euphemisms:
1) euphemisms corresponding to the principle of politeness;
2) euphemisms based on the principle of taboo;
3) euphemisms that camouflage negative events in economic, political, and social life;
4) euphemisms that increase the social status of various specialties.
There are many definitions of "euphemism" in linguistic literature. These definitions are analyzed and divided into three major groups:
The definition of euphemisms that serve to soften the first group of rude and unpleasant expressions (Ch. Kapu, L.R. Galperin, A. Spears, and others); The second group includes the definition of euphemisms, the main function of which is the importance of other social motives (E. Patric, A. Kasev, K. Allan, E. Irina, and others); In the third group, one of the main functions is to hide reality (C. Lawrence, C. Niman, K. Silver, and others). From what has been said, it can be concluded that euphemisms perform three functions:
1. To soften a rude and harsh word for the speaker. In this case, the speaker appreciates the subject of speech, and straightforward expression is perceived by him as rudeness, harshness, and rudeness;
2. Softening a rude or unpleasant word to the other party. This situation depends on the context and the conditions of the speech;
3. Concealment of reality. Such combinations not only soften the meaning, but also choose expressions that hide the essence of the event (Allan, K., Burridge, K., & Mazal Holocaust Collection (1991), p. 26).
Some researchers, for example, E.P. Senichkina, choose several social factors in the case of euphemism. We agree with his view on the socially conditioned motives for the use of euphemisms. When talking about the social conditioning of Euphemia, there are several reasons:
- human language is a means of communication, it has a social nature;
- man himself and his inner world are social, that is, socially-oriented and socially conditioned;
- The psychological mechanism of euphemistic substitution is activated during communication;
- The choice of euphemism depends on the state of communication.
There are different opinions in linguistics about the meaning of the term "taboo". Scientists attribute the emergence of taboos to the earliest stages of human society.
Among taboo words and phrases, first of all, animal names and moral taboos have a special place. Moral taboos have manifestations in the process of movement and communication. According to the old moral norms, a man could not name his children next to his elders. This is both a moral and ethnographic taboo. Although this custom is peculiar to the Azerbaijani people, such cases are sometimes found in English.
Taboos are words that have been accepted in society, especially in ancient times, and are associated with certain actions of any member of society, and those who practice them have been severely punished by the divine forces.
In one of the chapters of Totem and Taboo, Freud divided taboos into the following types of meanings:
1. taboos related to the dead;
2. animal names;
3. plant, mineral, natural phenomena;
4. names of body parts;
5. names of death and disease.
A.S. Kurkiev divides euphemisms into five groups
[6]:
1) euphemisms based on superstition (cold - bad);
2) euphemisms arising from the feeling of fear (die-fly away, go away);
3) mercy euphemisms (mentally retarded);
4) euphemisms that have arisen based on shyness (illegitimate children - a wicked child);
5) euphemisms based on politeness (old age).
Over time, several taboos (legal, social, religious)
are created by the state. Inadmissible taboos in cultural society, words that are not acceptable to use, discussions about them are used in satire and comedies, humorous expressions:
1. A taboo on food or drink;
2. The taboo on the opening of the face.
The main meaning of taboo (religious prohibitions on certain actions to avoid the hostile manifestation of incomparable powers in primitive people are only a few sources of euphemisms and euphemisms (religious prohibitions on taboos denoting the name of God, Azrael, evil spirits, animal names). The religious and spiritual motives of euphemism have been parallel and cohesive throughout human history (J.Lawrence (1973), p.78).
Based on the findings of the study, we can say that the euphemisms gave rise to taboos. Dysphemisms are the opposite of euphemisms. Although dysphemisms are similar to taboos, they can express meaning in a harsh, rude, negative, and more effective way. In dysphemisms, stylistic modality and subjective attitude become stronger.
For example, in English to go to hell, go away, and so on. examples are dysphemism, not taboo. In the
Azerbaijani language: vafat etmak, acal yeli asmak, ax-iratin sarayina getmak, can qu§u ugmaq, and so on.
Investigating the symptoms of euphemism and dysphemism allows us to distinguish them from the symptoms of other events. It is necessary to distinguish euphemisms expressed in slang words or slang itself, because sometimes, despite the negative denotation of slang, one can also come across associative melody, which is euphemism-slang.
The term slang is controversial because it refers to all informal words that fall short of modern English criteria and scope. Slang used by many speakers of the language, especially in informal communication, is extremely emotional and expressive.
Thus, slang expressions are used in the euphemistic softening function, which paraphrases negatively colored words used to neutralize the negative pragmatic effect. For example, instead of a toilet, the little house, aunt's closet. Expressions soften the expression and hide unpleasant content, but are used by the speaker to make the expression more expressive, are expressed in slang (Allan, K., Burridge, K., & Mazal Holocaust Collection (1991), p.123).
Although dysphemisms are rude, vulgarism and slang should be distinguished from dysphemism. In this case, the main difference is the communicative purpose of these units. The use of slang and vulgarisms has become a habit, and the speaker does not think about what they mean or uses them to be too informal, and some to imitate. Dysphemism, on the other hand, is deliberately used by the speaker provided that the same denotation has a more lenient name under the particular situation. Dysphemism, expressed in vulgarism, reinforces the negative pragmatic effect.
The lack of intermediate variants in the formation of synonymous forms in phraseological euphemisms leads to the emergence of the same phraseological euphemisms. For example: instead of "to kill oneself', to commit suicide, to take one's own life, and so on are different forms of the same phraseological euphemism. Only components are varied here. It transforms ideas into artistic means suitable for comprehensive, figurative, and accurate expression. Such euphemistic synonyms are often used in the language and speech of works of art.
At the same time, the connection with the living spoken language increases, and the creativity of phraseological expression is enriched. Phraseological synonyms that are semantically and stylistically compatible, are identical, but differ in meaning and stylistic diversity, and soften the expression, are called euphemistic phraseological synonyms.
For example: to combine somebody's hair, to give somebody a lecture. The synonymy in the phraseological euphemisms of the English language is found not only in the literary language but also in the colloquial language. For example, to blacken somebody's eye; to box somebody's ear; to beat somebody to feel the pinch, and so on. The government raised taxes so much that even the rich began to feel the pinch (Y.K. Karimov (1999), p.88).
Dysphemism is a discursive-contextual phenomenon, that is, the word becomes dysphemism in certain situations of discourse, in itself, it is simply a low-level or taboo lexicon. A characteristic feature of dysphemia is the retention of the denotation: that is, the process of change occurs in the connotative component. In the case of dysphemia, the denotation can be both negative and neutral.
Thus, the processes of euphemism and dysphemism are considered to be the opposite tendency, which has a place in language and speech, that is, the softening of negative expressiveness of speech and the roughness of expression, the strengthening of negative expression.
It should be noted that the middle class uses every opportunity to improve their social status by using soft and correct expressions in their speeches. The reason for this is the social situation, which is perceived by the elite as a duty (service) and standing at the top of the hierarchy, they try not to use the hypercorrect expression to raise their status. R. Holder's euphemism gives two thematic groups: education and low intellect (E. Sheygal (1997), p. 99).
Let's look at some common examples of the use of appropriate euphemisms. To swear like a lord reflects the elite's tendency not to run out of vocabulary. Let's look at examples of the use of appropriate euphemisms: "The BBC had been offered the series and had turned it down because one of the pupils was academically subnormal." We do have a special course for the Overactive Underachiever continued (E. Sheygal (1997), p.189).
The idea of using euphemisms in a journalistic text helps to effectively influence the recipient's emotions, so the narrative becomes more noticeable. The euphemisms used are more emotionally interesting, not only are direct (indirect) nominations, but also their meaning requires creative effort, certain associations, associated with the creation of a chain of interesting images. In this case, the softening of the direct nomination is not the main purpose of the use of euphemisms, they are used more as a function of intrigue, create another meaning, arouses interest in expression, attracts the reader, arouses interest in the reader, and draws attention to the subject (TO.M. CKpe6HeB (2004), p.177).
Conclusion
in this article, we have investigated linguocultural features of euphemisms based on English and Azerbaijani materials. One of the new fields of linguistics is linguoculturology. Other disciplines also study and study language and culture. However, taking into account the peculiarities of language and culture, linguoculturology, a new field of sociolinguistics, was created. In linguistics, euphemisms are the development of more noble, culturally meaningful words instead of rude, vulgar, obscene words and expressions. It serves to soften the meaning, to express it in a more cultural form.
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