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133In this case, we take into account the ability to combine words, as well as the function of speech. Charles Frieze, Maurice, and Yakushina worked in this direction.
3 Types of typology of vocabulary problems in recent times by Professor Berman:
a) on the form and meaning of lexical units in Russian and foreign languages;
b) the foreign language vocabulary being studied by its nature;
c) directs the speakers of other languages to listen and speak a foreign language.
A person knows about four times as many words as he can use in his speech. Adult educated people speak 6,000 to 10,000 words in their native language. The vocabulary used by people in everyday life, conversations, and messages is from 1500 to 2,500 words in European languages. It can be concluded that people
use a limited number of vocabulary in their native language. Time spent learning a language is strictly limited. In secondary school, the vocabulary that students need to learn must be identified. The students should learn the selected vocabulary. This vocabulary is referred to as the lexical minimum in the methodology. Lexical minimum choice has a long history.
References
1. Ingliz tili o'quv fani bo'yicha umumiy o'rta ta'lim maktablari uchun dastur. T. 1999 y.
2. J.J. Djalolov O'rta maktabda ingliz tili o'qitish mеtodikasi. Toshkent, Oqituvchi nashriyoti 1997 yil.
3. J.J. Jalolov, G.T. Makhkamova, Sh.S. Ashurov English Language Teaching Methodology (theory and practice).- T.:" Fan va texnologiya", 2015
4. Shatilov S.F. Metodika obucheniya nemetskomu yaziyku v sredney shkole, L. Prosveshenie 1977 god, str. 65-72, T.: 2003.
LEARNING WORD FORMATION PROCESSES IN ENGLISH
Azamov S.
Researcher,
Namangan Institute of Engineering and Technology
Namangan, Uzbekistan
Abstract
This article addresses all the processes associated with word change, such as affixation, which is a matter of morphology. According to the article, word formation in the broadest sense refers to the process of creating new lexical units. Although it is very easy to understand the difference between a morphological change of a word and the creation of a new term, sometimes there is a debate as to whether the mixing still changes morphologically or forms a new word. Of course, there are many processes in word formation that do not provoke contradictions and are very similar in most languages. Of course, there are many processes in word formation that do not provoke contradictions and are very similar in most languages.
Keywords: Word formation, affixation, lexical knowledge, mental lexicon, back clipping, fore-clipping, middle clipping, complex clipping, acronyms, initializes, abbreviations, derivational suffix.
Nowadays, the terms 'word formation' does not have a clear cut, universally accepted usage. It is sometimes referred to all processes connected with changing the form of the word by, for example, affixation, which is a matter of morphology. In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes of creation of new lexical units. Although it seems that the difference between morphological change of a word and creation of a new term is quite easy to perceive, there is sometimes a dispute as to whether blending is still a morphological change or making a new word. There are, of course, numerous word formation processes that do not arouse any controversies and are very similar in the majority of languages. One of the distinctive properties of human language is creativity, by which we mean the ability of native speakers of a language to produce and understand new forms in their language. Even though creativity is most apparent when it comes to sentence formation, it is also manifest in our lexical knowledge, where new words are added to our mental lexicon regularly. In this paper the most comprehensive expositions of word formation processes that speakers of a language use regularly (and unconsciously too) to create new words in their language are presented.
Clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts
(Marchand: 1969). Clippings are, also, known as "shortenings." Clipping mainly consists of the following types:
1. Back clipping
2. Fore-clipping
3. Middle clipping
4. Complex clipping
1. Back clipping
Back clipping or apocopation is the most common type, in which the beginning is retained. The unclipped original may be either a simple or a composite. Examples are: ad (advertisement), cable (cablegram), doc (doctor), exam (examination), gas (gasoline), math (mathematics), memo (memorandum), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium) mutt (muttonhead), pub (public house), pop (popular concert), trad (traditional jazz), fax (facsimile).
2. Fore-clipping
Fore-clipping or aphaeresis retains the final part. Examples are: phone (telephone), varsity (university), chute (parachute), coon (racoon), gator (alligator), pike (turnpike).
3. Middle clipping
In middle clipping or syncope, the middle of the word is retained. Examples are: flu (influenza), tec (detective), polly (apollinaris), jams (pyjamas), shrink (head-shrinker).
4. Complex clipping
Clipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact. Examples are: cablegram (cable telegram), op art (optical art), org-man (organization man), linocut (linoleum cut). Sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped as in navicert (navigation certificate). In these cases it is difficult to know whether the resultant formation should be treated as a clipping or as a blend, for the border between the two types is not always clear. According to Bauer (1993), the easiest way to draw the distinction is to say that those forms which retain compound stress are clipped compounds, whereas those that take simple word stress are not. By this criterion bod-biz, Chicom, Comsymp, Intelsat, midcult, pro-am, sci-fi, and sitcom are all compounds made of clippings. According to Marchand (1969), clippings are not coined as words belonging to the standard vocabulary of a language. They originate as terms of a special group like schools, army, police, the medical profession, etc., in the intimacy of a milieu where a hint is sufficient to indicate the whole. For example, in school slang originated exam, math, lab, and spec(ulation), tick(et = credit) originated in stock-exchange slang, whereas vet(eran), cap(tain), are army slang. While clipping terms of some influential groups can pass into common usage, becoming part of Standard English, clippings of a socially unimportant class or group will remain groap slang.
Acronym
Acronyms and initializes are abbreviations, such as NATO, laser, and IBM, that are formed using the initial letters of words or word parts in a phrase or name. Acronyms and initializes are usually pronounced in a way that is distinct from that of the full forms for which they stand: as the names of the individual letters (as in IBM), as a word (as in NATO), or as a combination (as in IUPAC). Another term, alphabetism, is sometimes used to describe abbreviations pronounced as the names of letters. Examples:
• pronounced as a word, containing only initial letters:
o FNMA: (Fannie Mae) Federal National Mortgage Association
o laser: light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation
o NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation o scuba: self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
• pronounced as a word, containing non-initial letters:
o Amphetamine: Alpha-methyl-phenethylamine o Gestapo: Geheime Staatspolizei ("secret state police")
o Interpol: International Criminal Police Organization
o radar: radio detection and ranging
• pronounced only as the names of letters
o BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation
o DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
o LED: light-emitting diode
Back-formation
Back-formation refers to the process of creating a new lexeme (less precisely, a new "word") by removing actual or supposed affixes. The resulting neologism is called a back-formation. Back-formations are shortened words created from longer words, thus back-formations may be viewed as a sub-type of clipping.
For example, the noun resurrection was borrowed from Latin, and the verb resurrect was then backformed hundreds of years later from it by removing the -ion suffix. This segmentation of resurrection into resurrect + ion was possible because English had many examples of Latinate words that had verb and verb+-ion pairs — in these pairs the -ion suffix is added to verb forms in order to create nouns (such as, insert/insertion, project/projection, etc.).Back formation may be similar to the reanalyses of folk etymologies when it rests on an erroneous understanding of the morphology of the longer word. For example, the singular noun asset is a back-formation from the plural assets. Many words came into English by this route: Pease was once a mass noun but was reinterpreted as a plural, leading to the back-formation pea. The noun statistic was likewise a back-formation from the field of study statistics. In Britain the verb burgle came into use in the 19th century as a back-formation from burglar (which can be compared to the North America verb burglarize formed by suffixation). Even though many English words are formed this way, new coinages may sound strange, and are often used for humorous effect. Frequently back-formations begin in colloquial use and only gradually become accepted. For example, enthuse (from enthusiasm) is gaining popularity, though it is still considered substandard by some today. The immense celebrations in Britain at the news of the relief of the Siege of Mafeking briefly created the verb to maffick, meaning to celebrate both extravagantly and publicly. "Maffick" was a back-formation from Mafeking, a place-name that was treated humorously as a gerund or participle. However, assets is originally not a plural; it is a loan-word from Anglo-Norman asetz (modern French assez). The -s was reanalyzed as a plural suffix.
Derivation
Derivation is used to form new words, as with happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine. A contrast is intended with the process of inflection, which uses another kind of affix in order to form variants of the same word, as with deter-mine/determine-s/determin-ing/determin-ed.
A derivational suffix usually applies to words of one syntactic category and changes them into words of another syntactic category. For example, the English derivational suffix -ly changes adjectives into adverbs (slow ^ slowly).
Some examples of English derivational suffixes:
• adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow ^ slowness)
• adjective-to-verb: -ize (modern ^ modernize)
• noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation ^ recreational)
• noun-to-verb: -fy (glory ^ glorify)
• verb-to-adjective: -able (drink ^ drinkable)
• verb-to-noun: -ance (deliver ^ deliverance) Although derivational affixes do not necessarily
modify the syntactic category, they modify the meaning of the base. In many cases, derivational affixes change both the syntactic category and the meaning: modern ^ modernize ("to make modern"). The modification of meaning is sometimes predictable: Adjective + ness ^ the state of being (Adjective); (stupid^ stupidness).
A prefix (write ^ re-write; lord ^ over-lord) will rarely change syntactic category in English. The derivational prefix un- applies to adjectives (healthy ^ unhealthy), some verbs (do ^ undo), but rarely nouns. A few exceptions are the prefixes en- and be-. En- (em-before labials) is usually used as a transitive marker on verbs, but can also be applied to adjectives and nouns to form transitive verb: circle (verb) ^ encircle (verb); but rich (adj) ^ enrich (verb), large (adj) ^ enlarge (verb), rapture (noun) ^ enrapture (verb), slave (noun) ^ enslave (verb). The prefix be-, though not as productive as it once was in English, can function in a similar way to en- to mark transitivity, but can also be attached to nouns, often in a causative or privative sense: siege (noun) ^ besiege (verb), jewel (noun) ^ bejewel (verb), head (noun) ^ behead (verb). Note that derivational affixes are bound morphemes. In that, derivation differs from compounding, by which free morphemes are combined (lawsuit, Latin professor). It also differs from inflection in that inflection does not change a word's syntactic category and creates not new lexemes but new word forms (table ^ tables; open ^ opened). Derivation may occur without any change of form, for example telephone (noun) and to telephone. This is known as conversion. Some linguists consider that when a word's syntactic category is changed without any change of form, a null morpheme is being affixed. Compounding
A compound is a lexeme (a word) that consists of more than one other lexeme. An endocentric compound consists of a head, i.e. the categorical part that contains the basic meaning of the whole compound, and modifiers, which restrict this meaning. For example, the English compound doghouse, where house is the head and dog is the modifier, is understood as a house intended for a dog. Endocentric compounds tend to be of the same part of speech (word class) as their head, as in the case of doghouse. (Such compounds were called kar-madharaya in the Sanskrit tradition.) Exocentric compounds do not have a head, and their meaning often cannot be transparently guessed from its constituent parts. For example, the English compound white-collar is neither a kind of collar nor a white thing. In an exo-centric compound, the word class is determined lexically, disregarding the class of the constituents. For example, a must-have is not a verb but a noun. English language allows several types of combinations of different word classes:
N + N lipstick, teapot A + N fast food, soft drink V + N breakfast, sky-dive N + V sunshine, babysit N + A capital-intensive, waterproof
A + A deaf-mute, bitter-sweet Like derivational rules, compounding rules may differ in productivity. In English, the N + N rule/pattern is extremely productive, so that novel compounds are created all he time and are hardy noticed. By contrast, the V + N rule/pattern is unproductive and limited to a few lexically listed items. Apart from endocentric and exocentric compounds there is another type of compound which requires an interpretation different from the ones introduced so far. Consider the hyphenated words in the examples below:
A. singer-songwriter scientist-explorer poet-translator hero-martyr
B. the doctor-patient gap The nature-nurture debate A modifier-head structure The mind-body problem
Both sets of words are characterized by the fact that none of the two members of the compound seems in any sense more important than the other. They could be said to have two semantic heads, none of them being subordinate to the other. Given that no member is se-mantically prominent, but both members equally contribute to the meaning of the compound, these compounds have been labeled copulative compounds (or dvandva compounds in Sanskrit grammarian terms).
Why are the copulative compounds in (a & b) divided into two different sets (a) and (b)? The idea behind this differentiation is that copulatives fall into two classes, depending on their interpretation. Each form in
(a) refers to one entity that is characterized by both members of the compound. A poet-translator, for example, is a person who is both as a poet and a translator. This type of copulative compound is sometimes called appositional compound. By contrast, the dvandvas in
(b) denote two entities that stand in a particular relationship with regard to the following noun. The particular type of relationship is determined by the following noun. The doctor-patient gap is thus a gap between doctor and patient, the nature-nurture debate is a debate on the relationship between nature and nurture, and so on. This second type of copulative compound is also known as coordinative compound. If the noun following the compound allows both readings, the compound is in principle ambiguous. Thus a scientist-philosopher crew could be a crew made up of scientist-philosophers, or a crew made up of scientists and philosophers. It is often stated that dvandva compounds are not very common in English (e.g. Bauer 1983:203), but in a more recent study by Olson (2001) hundreds of attested forms are listed, which shows that such compounds are far from marginal. The above mentioned word formation processes are the most frequent or important in the English language, but it is rarely the case that only one process occurs in one word. Words can be loaned and then back formed, later on gaining an affix. There are practically no boundaries to those processes other that human ingenuity.
Conclusion
In this article different word formation processes were explained including derivation, compounding,
blending, clipping, acronym, backformation and conversion, and also different categories of each were explained.
References
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THE ROLE OF IDIOPHRASEMES (SEMI-IDIOMS) IN CREATING THE NATIONAL LINGUISTIC
WORLD PICTURE
Idrisalieva L.
Senior teacher,
Namangan Institute of Engineering and Technology
Namangan, Uzbekistan
Abstract
The article deals with national linguistic world picture and the role of idiophrasemes in it. It is not obscure to anybody, at the late XXth century and the beginning of XXIst century a new paradigm in linguistics came into existence. It is called anthropocentric paradigm. New sciences begin to come into being in the field of linguistics, such as cognitive linguistics, cultural linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and many others, which deals with the relation between language and human. A code of every language has independent creative power. It does not just appear. The language is closely related to the culture; Consequently semi-idioms are also very factual to the language on the behalf of the human factor in linguistics. Semi-idioms or idiophrasemes are one of the means of creating the linguistic world picture.
In this article we touched upon the meanings of types of world picture, such as world picture, conceptual world picture, mental entity, linguistic world picture, a mental and lingual entity, and date about the emergence of these terms in linguistics. Besides, there is stated how the linguistic world picture categorizes the world.
Keywords: world picture, conceptual world picture, mental entity, linguistic world picture, a mental and lingual entity.
Phraseology, which studies phraseological units of the language, as the branch of Linguistics appeared in the 1940s. The object of Phraseology is phraseological units, their nature, and the way they function in speech. Thus, one part of phraseology - semi-idioms are also in deep research as they play an important role in creating linguistic world picture basing on cultures.
In this article we are going to discuss the problem of the term of "world picture", linguistic world picture in turn and by what means it categorizes the world.
A language has a communicative function. The success of this process much depends how the speaker uses his background knowledge. We should underline the importance of the speakers' cultural awareness, the factors that support the communication, how language and culture correspond between themselves, how language reflects the world through consciousness of the person, how the individual and collective mentality, ideology and culture are reflected in the language, how language and culture create a world picture - primary, from the native language, and secondary, acquired when studying foreign languages. The maintenance of
a cultural and national connotation of idioms is interpretation of the figurative basis of idiomatic picture of the world in the sign of cultural and national "space" of this language community.
The term "world picture" was first introduced by Ludvig Vitgenstein in his work "Logical and philosophical trilogy" for indicating a system of images which reflects the results of science development. From the 60th of the last century the problem of world picture has become the subject of discussion in semiotics (L. Veisberg).
Another prominent linguist W. Humboldt was also interested in the problem of the world picture. He claims that "for the native speaker the mother tongue represents a form of the conceptualization of the world characteristic for the given culture. The system of values, created within the culture, has its reflection in the language". Moreover, according to W. von Humboldt, each language reflects some definite worldview. Consequently, "the perception and activities of a person depend on his views," and attitude towards "objects" of the real world [Humboldt, 1956].
