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УДК 81.44
л. Д. Исакова
доктор филологических наук, доцент, профессор кафедры
второго иностранного языка Московского государственного лингвистического
университета; е-таН: [email protected]
цельносистемное типологическое исследование германских языков
Близкородственные языки, имеющие общий источник происхождения, обнаруживают множество сходств в их типологической характеристике и сходства в тенденциях типологического развития. Цельносистемное исследование близкородственных языков позволяет проследить действие основных типологических тенденций в рассматриваемой группе языков. В современных германских языках (за исключением исландского) наблюдается тенденция развития к изолирующему типу. Действие данной тенденции проявляется на морфологическом, синтаксическом и лексико-семантическом уровнях. Сопоставление нескольких близкородственных языков предоставляет возможность определить степень действия данной типологической тенденции в различных языках. Характерные типологические свойства отдельных языков зависят от индивидуального исторического развития языковых систем. Однако под действием общих типологических тенденций в близкородственных языках обнаруживаются много сходного в функционировании языковых единиц отдельных языков.
Ключевые слова: агглютинация; аналитизм; близкородственные языки; фор-мосвязывание; формоизоляция; флексия; языковой уровень; языковое средство; синтетизм; типологическая тенденция; цельносистемная типология; порядок слов.
L. D. Isakova
Advanced Doctor (Philology), Associate Professor, Professor at the Department of Second Foreign Language, Moscow State Linguistic University; e-mail: [email protected]
HOLISTIC TYPOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES
Closely related languages have developed from one and the same origin, and therefore they have many similar typological features and demonstrate similar typological trends. The whole system study of closely related languages allows to trace the functioning of the main typological trends in a given group of languages. There is a trend to isolating type in Modem Germanic languages (with the exception of Icelandic). This trend is manifested on the morphological, syntactic and lexico-semantic levels. The comparison of several closely related languages gives an opportunity to reveal the degree of the development of this typological trend in different languages. Characteristic traits of the typology of the languages are
connected with their historic development, with their individual language systems. But common typological trend of closely related languages is being manifested in the functioning of individual system elements.
Key words: agglutination; analytism; closely related languages; form binding; form isolation; inflexion; language level; language means; synthetism; typological trend; whole system typology; word order.
Introduction
In the process of typological analysis of closely related languages a good result could be received after the consideration of whole systems of the languages of a given group. The whole system comparison of closely related languages allows to demonstrate the features which unite and differentiate these languages. The closely related languages have developed from one and the same origin and so they inevitably have many features in common. The system similarity of given languages is based to a great extent on material elements (similar sound elements of lexemes, i.e. substantial similarity), which is typical only for related languages.
During the whole system analysis a leading typological feature inherent to the language system is found out. The leading feature determines the mode of word binding in the spoken chain, either with inflexion or by syntactic means, i. e. word order and auxiliary words. All the languages are divided to form binding and form isolating ones according to the fact whether the relations between words in the spoken chain are expressed or non-expressed in the words themselves [Солнцев 1995].
There is a common trend of typological development which could be often observed in closely related languages. Old Germanic languages were form binding, inflected languages, which widely used inflexion for expression of grammatical meanings. In inflectional languages the word is opposed to the morpheme and to the word combination [Широкова 2006, c. 194]. Modern Germanic languages remain form binding ones, but from the point of view of the whole system typology they demonstrate the trend of development to an isolating type with the exception of Icelandic. Depending on the degree of closeness to the isolating type L. Yermolayeva arranges Modern Germanic languages in such a way: Afrikaans - English - Danish - Norwegian - Swedish - Frisian - Dutch -German [Ермолаева 1987].
The Icelandic language does not manifest a firm trend to the isolating type.
Isolation is a syntactic phenomenon, but it becomes apparent on the other levels of the language system. Characterizing languages according to form binding or form isolation means arrangement of languages according to the whole system typological feature.
Comparison of typological features of closely related languages allows to demonstrate these feature in dynamics, as the development of a common typological trend. Determining the productive system links, new and vanishing phenomena makes also a dynamic effect.
The number of facts, characterizing the deviation of a Germanic language from the form binding state shows the degree of functioning of isolating trends in a given language. These trends are the most active in Afrikaans and English and the least in German.
Isolation trend in Germanic languages
Isolation trend in Germanic languages is evident on different language levels and in interlevel correlations. The syntactic level becomes more important than the morphological one. The word order of the SVO type becomes more and more steady, the subject moves forward to the position before the predicate. Isolation trend results in a more rigid word order and in a progressive elimination of inflexion. We can observe unification and disappearance of inflected means; as a result, agglutinative means develop, which is simpler and less synthetic than inflected means, because every agglutinative marker has only one meaning and can be joined to a stem, which can be used also without these affixes. Inflected morphological means are substituted with agglutinative or analytical means. Analytical means are auxiliary words used as a formant, which, when combined with words having lexical meaning, represent an analytical word form.
If we consider the structure of a language as a global linguistic phenomenon, determined with a functioning productive mechanism, then we can trace evolution in Germanic languages: elimination of inflexion and rise of analytism; moreover, we observe the transfer to affixation of the agglutinative type. Inflexion means develop from the synthetic to analytical type. It should be noted a trend to analysis (development of analytical means) in West Germanic languages and a trend to agglutination in Northern Germanic (Scandinavian) languages. So we observe in tins
case an areal ordering of languages. External and internal inflected patterns are productive only in Icelandic.
Agglutinative features can be found on the syntactic level, too. A ramified paradigm of word combinations with infinitives illustrates this fact. High frequent combinations of non-finite verb forms with nouns, adjectives, verbs give evidence of agglutinative trends [Лукин 1995].
It is observed in the noun system a trend to substitution of morphological means with syntactic ones, to expression of relational meanings with a combination of the preposition and noun and by means of word order. Basic grammatical information of a noun phrase is represented in an analytical way, by means of the article being in the head of a noun phrase in Germanic languages. Grammatical meanings must be characterized by the property of obligatory expression [Плунгян 2011, p. 20].
Auxiliary words are being used more frequently to express grammatical meanings, a syntactic mode of binding named adjoining becomes widespread.
The syntactic level determines to a considerable extent the system of parts of speech and the choice of a lexico-semantic word variant. The connection of the lexico-semantic level with the syntactic one becomes tighter, and the connection with the morphological level is looser. Semantic variation and polysemy, dependency of meaning from syntax are being spread. The number of phraseological patterns increases. It could be observed that the number of words with fuzzy and broad lexical meaning increases and it results in paradigmatic ordering of the lexicon.
Thus, analytism develops, and it is not only morphological, but also syntactical and lexical analytism. Syntactical analytism means, for example, a broad use of prepositions for binding words. Lexical analytism is represented with the development of different analytical word combinations, designating one concept.
In such word-combinations the word with a fuzzy lexical meaning in the main serves for the transmission of grammatical meaning. The more lexical analytism is developed in a language, the more there are words with broad meaning.
The trend to isolation in the word formation of Germanic languages is represented in productivity of such patterns as conversion and word composition. In general, as inflected means decrease in German languages, the area of word formation is widened.
In order to demonstrate the trend to isolation in Modem Germanic languages it is proposed to compare one of the most advanced in developing to the isolating type languages, that is English, and the least advanced, that is German, and the language which occupies an intermediate position according to this point of view, that is Swedish. The degree and forms of development of the isolation trend in given languages will be different.
English
English is to a great extent close to the isolating type remaining a form binding language.
An extremely small number of morphological means used to express relational meanings is accompanied with the increase of the importance of syntactic means. There is a rigid word order in Modern English. The order SVO is being kept as in a simple narrative sentence, as well in a subordinate clause. The subject precedes the predicate. Topicalization of the subject is observed, the subject represents the topic in functional sentence perspective. Besides, there are two zones according to the degree of rigidness of word order in the structure of the English sentence [Егорова 1990, p. 75]. There are the subject, predicate, direct and indirect objects in the central zone, and the more rigidly fixed word order is noted in this zone, grammatical relations between words are determined with their mutual distribution. The peripheral zone consists of circumstances and prepositional objects, which have a great degree of freedom in the word order and can precede the central zone or they can be either inside it or after it. There are some rules in these processes. For example, circumstances defining action precede a predicate, and circumstances designating resulting action follow it.
Rigid word order can be also found in the frame of several syntactic groups, for example there is a rule of succession in the occurrence of several single preceding attributes.
The English language demonstrates a trend to analysis on the morphological level. Analytical forms are widely used to express grammatical categories of time, voice and modality.
Verb forms in interrogative and negative sentences are derived analytically. This mode is used also to express a noun category of definite-ness / indefiniteness.
The noun has two cases: the common and the possessive case; the possessive case is expressed in an agglutinative mode.
Synthetic means are used most frequently in the system of English pronouns. Suppletive forms, internal flexion and agglutination are used to form the object case.
Two basic verb forms are derived from the infinitive with the productive agglutinative means - dental suffixes. Internal flexion as a means to derive basic verb forms occurs in irregular verbs and it is an unproductive mode. Existence of three basic forms which are the same (to cut - cut - cut) well corresponds with an image of the language with isolating trends.
To express relations of words in a sentence only one agglutinative marker -5 is used in the noun system (possessive case) and in the verb system (expression of person and number). In other cases analytical means (auxiliary verbs, personal pronouns in the nominative case preceding verbs), lexico-syntactic (prepositions) and syntactic (word order in a sentence) means are used. Isolation trend corresponds with a trend to use the form of the third person form without an agglutinative marker: "he go" instead of "he goes", and also with other violations of agreement in person and number, for example when a subject is expressed with a noun designating a group of persons: "the committee has the task" and "the committee have the task", where it is possible to use the verb either in singular, or in plural. There appears a trend to the absolute and invariable verb form.
To derive the norm plural form is used agglutinative -s as a productive means. All the other different means to derive noun plural forms are nonproductive in English.
At the same tune there are some cases in English when new synthetic forms arise from analytical ones. It is the contact ordering of formal elements that favours to this process. Arising of new inflections can be illustrated with short colloquial forms of auxiliary verbs used to express:
• time category: '//, '5, 're,'ve, 'd;
• person: '//, 're, '5.
It's possible to mark new agglutinative: n't, let'5 [EnpeH6ayM 1990].
While significant words are ordered rigidly, auxiliary elements can be independent and mobile in English. Acquiring general meaning, they can form a group of words.
The article in English is quite independent from the noun. It expresses only noun determination in a concrete speech situation and forms a noun phrase. The possessive case marker -5 can relate not only to a single noun, but to a whole group of words: the profe55or of Oxford'5 lecture.
Besides this, the possessive case marker can be used even with different complex word groups, for example, with abbreviations in the written form: Bybee et aVs obligation.
The lack of morphological markers in direct and indirect objects and in stead of it their syntactic expression lead to the fact that it is possible to transform an active construction into a passive one with the transformation both of a direct and indirect object into a subject:
He wrote me a letter ^ A letter was written to me ^ I was written a letter.
In English, which is close to the isolating type, it is observed a weak differentiation of parts of speech, because there are few morphological means, participating in this differentiation. And if it is stated, that there are no distinctions between noun and verb in Austronesian, then linguists come to a conclusion, that English is on the way to a state of the Austronesian type [Anward et al. 1997, p. 169].
Simultaneously with reduction of inflexional forms in English one can observe an intensive development of word formation means. Inflexion and word formation affixes are used in English almost equally: about twenty words have inflexional forms and about twenty words have derivational affixes in a text with hundred words. In comparison, there are fifty five inflexions and sixteen derivational affixes in Icelandic [Ky6paKOBa 1972, p. 187].
At the same time, in comparison with affixation, word compounding is more widely spread in English. English is close to the isolating type not only due to productivity of word compounding in English, but also due to the syntactic, spoken character of composites, which are close in their structure to free word combinations. The most productive pattern of word compounding in Modem English is N + N (noun stem + noun stem), along with this it is allowed a great freedom of semantic relations as in nominative word combinations and as a sequence of it in compound words as well. The usage of word combinations, consisting of two nouns, is practically not limited in semantic. Almost every noun can be used prepositionally as an attribute.
Along with compound words, word combinations are widely used in English in the same function. Word combination represents an analytical type of nomination, in contrast to word compounding as a synthetic type.
Weak differentiation of parts of speech is a cause of a such phenomenon in English as conversion, i. e. transfer of one part of speech to another. A lexeme transformed to a lexeme of the other part of speech, acquires all the grammatical features of a new part of speech. Conversion relates to phenomena of polyfunctionality, which are inherent for languages changing their structure from noun - verb to the structure nominativity - verbality [Vogel 1996]. These properties are not fixed on a certain lexeme, but found out on the syntactic level, when one and the same lexeme demonstrates the property of nominativity or verbality. This phenomenon is wide-spread in English. Many lexemes can be used either as verbs, or as nouns, that is, they are polyfunctional words. At the same time every noun can be contextually used to express verbality. Conversive relations between words are the result of word polyfunctionality.
As a rule an English word is polysemantic. A concrete lexico-semantic variant realizes on a syntagmatic level.
The direct word order is spread in English, the subject should represent a topic. The rigid word order is compensated with a more free lexical combinability. As a result, the semantic range of verbs can be much broader than in languages with morphological markers of cases. A verb of active action can combine with nouns having the meaning of process, state, event, place, time, cause etc. Thus, verb combinability and respectively its lexico-semantic structure broaden. The rigidness of the syntactic word order favours the combinability and broadening of lexico-semantic structure of words in languages which are close to the isolating ones. Word combinability in these languages is considerable. Verbs of action or state of living beings can be used in very unusual combinations, e. g. in the phrase "This room sleeps four people" noun, designating location, is used as the subject [Lazard 1994, p. 253].
As a result of development of word polysemy and combinability increases the importance of semantic relations between components of word combinations and sentences, and also contextual interdependence of words develops. Word combinations substituting separate words appear. In such verb-noun word combinations as, for example, "to make use" the verb with a broad meaning has the function to express grammatical meaning, and the verbal noun bears lexical meaning. This analytical mode to express concepts is productive in English, it demonstrates the trend to a separate expression of grammatical and lexical meanings [Николаевская 2010, p. 243].
All these features, observed on morphological, syntactic, lexical levels in English are interrelated, they reflect the functioning of the isolation trend in a given language.
German
German is on the last position in the group of Germanic languages having the trend to isolation. Synthetic means designating the meaning of grammatical categories, are kept in German to the most extent.
The case system is reducing in the noun system. The system of four cases is observed only in nouns of masculine gender of weak and strong declension.
To express a relation category of case an analytical means, that is a variable article is used. There are additional (synthetic) means: the agglutinative ending of the Genitive of the strong declension -(e)s and the agglutinative ending of the oblique case of the weak declension -(e)n.
Nouns of neuter gender and plural norms have a three cases system with a variable article, agglutinative -(e)s for the Genitive of nouns of neuter gender and with agglutinative -(e)n for the Dative case of plural nouns.
The nominative and accusative cases of nouns of neuter gender and of plural number are represented with one syncretical form which unites the functions of different cases.
Syncretical forms are observed in the two-cases system of declension, including norms of feminine gender where synthetic cases markers are absent completely.
Thus, we observe the reduction of the noun case system to two-, three-or four components, and only residual synthetic markers remain. The case category is marked mainly with an analytical means, that is the article.
To express the category of number an analytical means the article "die", suffixes (-e, -er, -en, -s) and rare internal flexion are used.
Categories of gender, number and case for adjectives are reflected in German; they give formal confirmation of noun meanings in adjectives used in attributive function.
Transfer from agreement to reflection leads to the destruction of the adjective categories.
The paradigm of the strong declension includes five endings (-er, -es, -e, -em, -en), and the weak declension paradigm includes only two
endings (-e, -en). It is rather difficult to differentiate adjective forms in gender, number and case in most instances.
There is an elaborated inflexion in the German verb system. But we observe in it a gradual transfer of several functions from using morphological means to syntactic ones, and thus morphological markers are being respectively destroyed.
The trend to analytical development is observed, as in other languages of the West Germanic sub-group, in the area of morphological verb forms in the German language. Analytical forms are used to express time, mood and voice. If there are two alternative types of forms manifesting one meaning, the more preferable is the analytical type; for example, in order to express the meaning of irreality the analytical forms of konditionalis are more often used than synthetical forms of the konjunktive preterite.
The categories of person and number are expressed with flective means. There are three grammemes of the first, second, and third person to manifest the person category in the singular presence form of the real mood. And to express the person category in other cases there are two grammemes (of the second and non-second person). The grammemes of the non-second person are amalgamated, syncretic, and they include the meanings of the first and third person. Syncretic forms manifest a trend to reduction of the number of forms designating the person, for they duplicate the designation of the person and number with a predicative combination (the combination of a personal pronoun or a noun in the nominative case with a verbal form). The predicative combination has two components in Germanic languages and the subject existence is obligatory. Thus, morphological functions of the person and number are partly expressed with syntactical means in German.
Agglutinative means are used to designate time: the suffix -te in the indicative preterite. They are also used to express a reflected category of obliqueness / non-obliqueness: the suffix -e.
The voluntative / non-voluntative category is limited with a formal expression of desire in the second person of the singular. In other cases desire or will is expressed with syncretic forms, for example, the second person of the plural: Sagt! ' 5ay! ' - (ihr) 5agt ' you 5ay '.
Agglutinative means are used in formation of basic forms of weak (regular ) verbs: The basic forms of strong (irregular) verbs use the suffix -en, prefix ge- and unproductive internal flexion (ablaut). Residual
instances of internal flexion occur in forms of the presence singular in several strong (irregular) verbs. But in general the internal flexion as a synthetic means is reproductive in the German verb morphology.
There is a relatively free word order in German. The predicate has a fixed position: its finite form is on the second place in a simple sentence, and non-finite form is in the end of sentence. More free word order is provided with a sufficient amount of morphological means, expressing relational categories which serve to bind or relate words in the spoken chain.
As to languages with the rigid word order, it is only the theme which is subject to topicalization, that of location of the first position in a sentence. In German with its more free word order, a rheme can also take the initial position, and then the rheme is stressed.
Word formation is greatly developed in German. Word compounding is extremely productive, but compounds in German are notable for a great unity of components, they have a definite phonetic form and distinctly differ from word combinations. According to compounding patterns words could derive from any word combination, for example:
das Wasser für ein Landhaus "the water for a country house" -
das Landhauswasser.
It is possible to use connective -5 and -n in composites. Composites can participate in the formation of new composites. If there is a trend to analysis in the grammar of German, then we see a trend to synthesis in the vocabulary.
A peculiar word-formation type is also wide-spread, that is a syntactic concretion when a syntactic group is transformed into a composite by means of word compounding and word formation simultaneously: frei lassen "make free" - die Freilassung.
Besides, syntactic concretions in the form of verbal norms are spread more than other forms.
Synthetic phenomena take very strong positions in the vocabulary of German. An elaborated system of word formation is very productive in modern times. A great inventory of various productive suffixes, prefixes, semi-suffixes, semi-prefixes gives evidence to this fact.
Word formation means are used, for example, to convey verbal aspect meanings: blicken "look" - erblicken "see", blühen "blossom" - erblühen "blossom out".
German is related to languages which definitely differentiate parts of speech. Due to morphological contrast between noun and verb there is no conversion in German. Non-affixal, zero derivation can be noted on the word-formation level: leben "live" - da5 Leben "life", and there are phenomena of syntactic hyper-categorization on the syntactic level: kommen "come" - (dein) Kommen "(your) coming" [Vogel 1996, p. 274].
We can observe also analytical trends in the German vocabulary. They can be illustrated with the most different analytical combinations with a nominative function. The patterns of non-phraseological fixed combinations are not so widely spread in German as in English, but they are all the same productive.
Swedish
There is also an isolation trend in Swedish. In contrast to means of the morphological level the syntax plays a great role in it.
There are only two cases in the noun system: the common case and the genitive case. As in English, relational meanings in the noun system are conveyed basically by means of the word order and prepositions. A prepositional-nominal system arises to express grammatical meanings in the noun system, the system comprises morphological and syntactic means to convey relations between words in the spoken chain. As in English, there are only two cases. The possessive (genitive) case is marked in agglutinative mode (marker -5).
The category of gender (the common and neuter gender), which is manifested in article and adjective forms, is inherent in the Swedish noun system.
Both analytical (the article) and agglutinative (suffixes of the plural number) means are used for derivation of nouns of the plural number.
The preposed indefinite article in Swedish has two forms: of the common and neuter gender (en, ett). The definite article has forms of the common, neuter gender (-(e)n, -(e)t) and three variants of the plural form (-na, -a, -en). The definite article is post-positional, it joins to a noun in agglutinative mode. An article having the form of the common or neuter gender (den, det) precedes a noun in the definite form with an adjective.
There are two markers (-t and -a(e)) in the system of adjectives.
Thus, we can note weak development of formal means expressing grammatical categories in the noun system of Swedish. These means are
analytical (a preposed indefinite and free standing article) and in most cases agglutinative (a post-positional definite article, a possessive case marker of nouns, suffixes designating the plural number, adjective forms). The agglutinative -s of the genitive has in Swedish the same syntagmatic mobility as in English and it can relate not only to a noun, but to a word group altogether.
The use of analytical and agglutinative means is typical also for the system of the Swedish verb.
Analytical forms express categories of time, mood, voice, action representation (non-finite forms of the verb).
Agglutinative markers are wide-spread in the Swedish verb system. The verb stem occurs only in imperative forms (except of verbs of the 1st conjugation, having the suffix -a).
The internal inflexion is used to derive basic forms of verbs of the IVth conjugation, but this type is unproductive in Modern Swedish.
Forms of the passive voice in Swedish are derived both in analytical mode by means of the auxiliary verb bliva and by means of joining of the agglutinative -s to an active voice form. The agreement of the gender and number in a complex form of the participle II with a subject gives evidence of the use of synthetic mean in formation of the passive in Swedish:
Pojken blir kallad. 'The boy is called.'
Barnet blir kallat. 'The child is called.'
Flickorna blir kallade. 'The girls are called.'
Therefore it's possible to make a conclusion, that the use of agglutinative and analytical means is typical in the modern Swedish morphology. Along with this agglutinative means prevail. There is a trend of development to agglutination in Scandinavian languages. This trend is a result of the functioning of the more general trend to the isolation type, because agglutinative means are less bound with a stem than inflexion means, typical for Old German languages and testify to a less degree of synthesis inherent to the morphological system of the language.
With no grammatical and a limited set of derivational means for expressing aspect meanings lexico-constructive means are used in Swedish, they are represented as verbal analytical and semi-analytical constructions. Different modes of action: inchoative, processive, finite, iterative, resultative, effective are manifested with combinations with certain verbs.
Such constructions, a5 halla pa + infinitive include a non-semantic verb. This construction expresses the meaning of a durative process. It is widespread in Swedish. The construction has eight correspondences in German to convey the same meaning [Schneider 1977, p. 98-101].
The lack of an elaborated system of relational categories, expressed in Swedish with inflexion means favours the wider use of syntactic means. There are many features of the rigid word order in Swedish: an inflected part of a verb takes the second place in the narrative sentence, the subject aims at the beginning of a sentence, an indirect object precedes a direct object if there are no prepositions, an indirect prepositionless object precedes an indirect prepositional object, there is a strict word order SVO in a subordinate clause etc.
Productivity of word combinations and constructions with non-finite verbal forms characterize the trend to agglutination. Different infinitive phrases are quite often used in Swedish instead of subordinate clauses: the object with the infinitive after the verbs: 5e 'see', hora 'hear', 5aga 'say', vanta 'wait', minna5 'remember' and so on.
The grammaticalized dropping of auxiliary verbs in the perfect or past perfect tense in subordinate clauses corresponds to the general trend to agglutination. A non-finite verbal form supin functions as a predicate in such a case.
The fact that analytical combinations are wide-spread leads to expansion of the group of modal verbs used with infinitives. A number of new verbs with modal meaning come into existence, e. g.: lata 'let', bruka 'be in habit of'. To designate the possibility to perform an action four verbs exist: kunna 'can', orka 'can',fa 'may', hinna 'attain'.
As there are no case markers in Swedish (except the markers of the possessive case), transformations of active verbal constructions into passive one are possible, while both the direct and indirect objects are transformed into the subject:
Jag skrev honom ett brev. 'I wrote him a letter'. ^ Brevet skrevs (blev skriven) av mig till honom. 'The letter was written by me to him.'
Jag skrev honom ett brev. 'I wrote him a letter.' ^ Han skrevs (blev skriven) ett brev av mig. 'He was written a letter by me.'
Thus, there are features of analytism and agglutination in Swedish syntax, manifested in the productivity of different analytical combinations and of combinations with infinitive verbal forms.
Parallel to inflexion means there are also derivational means, which are developed in Swedish. Affixal word-formation is one of the most important modes to derive new words. There are verbs with separable prefixes in Swedish (as in German) and verbs with particles following the verbs (as in English): avkorta 'shorten', komma bort 'be lost'.
English phrasal verbs represent an analytical mode of verb derivation, German verbs with separable prefixes unite analytical and synthetic mode. Both types occur in Swedish.
The fact, that two derivational processes have parallel development in Swedish, is continued with verbs representing both types: pafylla andfylla pa 'pour out.'
One of the most important modes to derive new words in Swedish is word compounding. It has two functions: creation of one-word nominative units, expressing lexical concept, and the function of syntactic means to convey relations arising in the process of speech communication. The most widespread composites in Swedish are words derived according to the pattern N + N with a connecting morpheme or (more often) without it. The major part of the composites are binomial, even if they consist of many stems.
Swedish belongs to the languages which definitely discern the verb and the noun, therefore there are no real instances of the derivational conversion.
Conclusion
Comparison of three Germanic languages allows to represent the trends of the isolation type in separate closely related languages. This type is being shown by productivity of analytical and agglutinative means for grammatical forms, by the increase of the degree of rigid word order, by syntactic means for expression of grammatical meanings, by spreading of analytical word combinations.
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