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present poses a threat to unity not only of the Muslim umma, but also to the entire Crimean Tatar people. The problems of the fuller satisfaction of the spiritual requirements of the Crimean Muslims, return of former Muslim religious objects, and construction of new mosques, primarily the long-awaited cathedral mosque in the Crimean capital Simferopol, are of crucial importance. It is necessary that Crimean Muslims make a contribution to the strengthening of the international positions of Ukraine in the context of its Euro-integration desires. Solution to all these problems requires, above all, the formation and endorsement of state strategy of further progress of Muslim revival. Islam, with its peace-loving essence, can play the role of a stability factor in the Crimea, which will raise the international image and status of Ukraine in the eyes of the world community. As to the Crimean Tatar people, Islam will always be the factor of firm unity, spirituality and high culture.
"Islam v SNG", Moscow - Nizhni Novgorod, 2011, No 415, pp. 54-65.
E. Borodin,
Ph. D. (Econ.), Institute of Regional Politics KYRGYZSTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF WORLD ECONOMY AND POLITICS
The geographical position and a rather weak economic potential of Kyrgyzstan determine its dependence on its bigger neighbors. The geographical division of the republic into the North and the South and the absence of the transport infrastructure for the connection of its regions determine the multidirectional vector of the economic and political orientation of various parts of the republic. The North of Kyrgyzstan is closely connected with neighboring Kazakhstan and
China. In the South the role of the main partners of the country is played by neighboring Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
Russia, the United States, China, Germany, Britain, Turkey, Switzerland and Japan, as well as the Asian Development Bank, the Islamic Development Bank, the World Bank, and the UN Development Program are the main donors of Kyrgyzstan. The important geopolitical situation of Kyrgyzstan determines the interest of the main "players" in their presence in the republic, but not a single country of today's world has committed to take upon itself all necessary financial infusions alone so far. Thus, Kyrgyzstan has to maneuver with a view to receiving maximal economic dividends from all "players."
Kyrgyzstan has fulfilled its allied commitments in all bodies of the post-Soviet area where Russia hold the dominant position - CIS, CSTO, EurAsEC. At present cooperation of Kyrgyzstan with the Russian Federation has been developing virtually in all spheres. The leaders, parliament deputies and public figures of Kyrgyzstan have time and again spoken in favor of creating a confederation of the Kyrgyz Republic with Russia, and entering into the Alliance of Russia and Belarus. It seems that such projects are promising enough and should be discussed in detail at the level of the expert community of the two countries.
Kyrgyzstan's interest in the United States and its policy toward that country during the years of independence did not go beyond the bounds of commerce. There were no political, economic or any other aspirations. Economic cooperation and American investments camouflaged the real desire to use the United States as a new sponsor and creditor. The United States actively supported the actions of the then President of Kyrgyzstan Askar Akayev and its democratic choice. Evidently, Kyrgyzstan's entry in the World Trade Organization has been supported by the United States.
Nowadays the economic presence of the United States in Kyrgyzstan is rather negligible and it will hardly increase in the near future. The American University of Central Asia opened with support of the U.S. government and the Institute of Open Society has gradually become an ordinary educational establishment. It is virtually neglected by the governments of the two countries and is not a subject of any negotiations between them.
An important place in the implementation of the plans of the presence of the United States in the Kyrgyz Republic has been given to American, international and other foreign non-governmental organizations. Such organizations as the Peace Corps, the International Republican Institute of the U.S.A., the East European Democratic Center, the "Counterpart Consortium," the "Eurasia Foundation," and the "War and Peace Institute" function on the territory of the republic with a view to "developing democracy," but in actual fact, their officials play the role of "instructors of revolutions." The National Democratic Institute of the United States has rendered financial, technical and methodological assistance to all opposition parties and organizations of Kyrgyz Republic.
The mutual relations of Kyrgyzstan and the United States largely depend on the Russian-American relations, the activity of the regional international organizations in which the Kyrgyz Republic is participating, and cooperation with international economic and financial organizations, primarily with the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, which are actually under American control. The present government of the Kyrgyz Republic cannot fully withdraw from cooperation with these organizations and this is why the only possible way lies in joint work along with the strict protection of the interests of Kyrgyz society.
This aspect includes the problem of the state debt of Kyrgyzstan, mainly to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The writing-off or restructuring of the debt depends on the position of the donor-countries. It is evident that the absolute size of the debt is not too great. However, in the conditions of the financial-economic crisis the pressure of the debt factor is growing, primarily in the psychological sphere. To solve the problem of debt it is necessary not only to have a dialogue with the United States, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, but also to develop Kyrgyzstan's own economy.
The development of ties with the European Union, which includes twenty-five countries, especially with Germany as the leading partner and donor, is the most advantageous direction of the foreign policy of Kyrgyzstan. Today the European Union is the most important trade and investment partner of the Kyrgyz Republic. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union the European Union has begun to render assistance to the newly-formed independent states, including Kyrgyzstan. A special program of technical assistance was created within the framework of which various development projects are implemented in certain CIS countries, including Kyrgyzstan.
The European Union is the biggest donor and trusted partner of Kyrgyzstan, which renders assistance in the sphere of ecology, democratization and human rights, socio-economic and educational reforms, consolidation of security along the republican borders, and also in the struggle against drug production and drug trafficking, as well as in ensuring food security. During the years of partnership with the European Union Kyrgyzstan has received about 200 million Euro for the implementation of various programs and projects. The annual technical assistance of the European Union to Kyrgyzstan amounts to ten million Euro.
There are prospects for the implementation of joint Kyrgyz-European investment projects aimed at the development of promising natural deposits and the creation of transport enterprises, which will be a substantial contribution to the economic and fuel-and-energy progress of the Kyrgyz Republic. Invitation of European investments for the development of the hydropower potential of Kyrgyzstan is also a quite promising business.
Taking into account the major importance of the problem of the shortage of water resources in Central Asia, the Ministry for foreign affairs of the Kyrgyz Republic carries on work in the sphere of exchange of experience and advanced technologies in the rational and effective use of the water resources, which the European Union countries have. The European Union program "WARMAP" for managing water resources and agricultural production in Central Asia helps Kyrgyzstan in this sphere.
Cooperation between the Kyrgyz Republic and China, which began in the post-Soviet period virtually from scratch, has now reached a sufficiently high level. It is characterized by a stable practice of regular mutual visits of high officials and experts of the two countries. For the past years the transport infrastructure connecting the two countries has steadily been developing, and mutual trade turnover is on an increase.
The PRC leaders were seriously worried by the events of the "tulip revolution" of 2005 in Kyrgyzstan, which brought about the change of the country's leadership and the coming to power of the opposition forces. China has taken a wait-and-see position, having given a diplomatic initiative to the new authorities of the Kyrgyz Republic, despite the fact that certain Kyrgyz political figures continued to advocate the revision of the relations with China, above all, the Kyrgyz-Chinese border agreements. The President of the
Kyrgyz Republic A. Bakiyev returned the relations between the two countries to their habitual format. Contacts between various ministries and departments of the two countries were resumed and mutual visits at all levels continued as before. Trade turnover began to grow and reached a record high of $3.5 billion in 2007. The People's Republic of China does not regard Kyrgyzstan as one of its main economic partners in the region. The priority economic projects for the Kyrgyz Republic, namely, the construction of a railway line connecting Kyrgyzstan with the PRC and Uzbekistan and the export of Kyrgyz electric energy to China have not found due response from the Chinese side. In the opinion of Chinese experts, both projects are disputable from the point of view of their economic and financial effectiveness and costly enough (the necessary money amounts to more than $2 billion). The Kyrgyz side could not submit convincing proofs of the presence of the needed reserve of capacities for stable export supply of electric energy.
The governments of the two countries are implementing projects on rehabilitation of the motor roads Osh - Sary - Tash - Irkeshtam and Torugart - Naryn - Bishkek. China has resumed its annual grant assistance to Kyrgyzstan for socio-economic development amounting to 50 billion yuan a year. Entrepreneurs of the two countries have stepped up their activity, realizing small and medium-sized projects in various spheres.
India is one of the great powers in the modern world. In the early 1990s a new direction appeared in its foreign-policy strategy, namely, Central Asia. In order to achieve its political goals India is striving for strengthening its economic ties with the countries of the region, which form a huge potential market for sales of its industrial commodities, and also a promising source of fuel-and-energy resources and minerals, above all, non-ferrous and precious metals. The Kyrgyz Republic is known for its deposits of gold, and India is one of the world's biggest
consumers of this precious metal, and it can invest considerable means in the modernization of gold mining. Besides, the Central Asian region is a convenient "corridor" for transporting Indian goods to Russia, the CIS countries and European states.
Evidently, the strengthening and broadening of ties with Central Asian countries will remain a priority direction in India's foreign policy in the foreseeable future, and its interests will not be confined to the economic sphere only. Strategic and security interests will acquire ever greater importance. The Indian establishment maintains that the American presence in the region is explained above all by the U.S. desire to control the energy resources of Central Asia and the Middle East. India approved the proposal of Kyrgyzstan to hold an international conference on peaceful settlement in Afghanistan. The two sides expressed conviction that peace and stability in Southeast and South Asia are impossible without this.
India is interested in the development of small and medium-sized business in Kyrgyzstan. It displayed the greatest interest in the organization of tourism on Issyk Kul Lake during the hottest season of the year. India also has suggestions on the development of information technologies in the Kyrgyz Republic - the setting up of the Indian-Kyrgyz Center of information technologies in Bishkek, and also the construction of enterprises for processing agricultural products. The closest cooperation exists in the sphere of education. Young boys and girls from India have been studying at Osh University for several years now and the Indian Research Center has been opened where work is being done on programs evolved by Indian scientists. The Kyrgyz side is interested in the speedy solution of questions connected with the implementation of the construction project of a potato-processing plant in Talas region and the creation of a mountain-medical center in Bishkek.
Kyrgyzstan is, perhaps one of the most secular countries of all Central Asian states. However, this is not an obstacle for versatile cooperation of the Kyrgyz Republic with a number of Muslim countries, including theocratic Iran where the majority of the population is Shia Muslims. During the past few years relations between Kyrgyzstan and Iran have reached a new level, especially in the economic sphere. The number of Iranian entrepreneurs working in the Kyrgyz Republic has grown considerably and more than 180 joint Kyrgyz-Iranian ventures and Iranian firms do business on the territory of this Central Asian republic. These joint enterprises produce electric-technical equipment, incubators, lighting tools, ceramics, packing materials for food products, automobile tyres, etc. Electric bulbs made in Kyrgyzstan are regularly supplied to Iran.
Turkey was actually the first Muslim country which recognized the independence of all Central Asian states in 1991. By 2009 Kyrgyzstan has reliably consolidated its relations with Turkey, and now it is one of its important foreign-policy partners, after Russia, China, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, as well as the United States, Japan and the EU countries. On certain problems and in certain spheres Turkey displays greater activity than other states mentioned. For instance, the Turkish leadership shows special interest in the branches of the defense industrial complex, offering its services and participation in the military-industrial sphere. The training of Kyrgyz military officers in Turkey and its assistance in the humanitarian and military technical spheres have now become traditional.
The sphere of military-technological cooperation is of great importance for both countries. On July 10, 2008, a protocol was signed in Ankara between the Ministry of defense of Kyrgyzstan and the General Headquarters of Turkey on granting material and technical aid to the armed forces of the Kyrgyz Republic, which envisaged the
implementation of the agreement between the governments of the two countries on free military-technical assistance to a sum of one million 190 thousand new Turkish lira for 2008 - 2009. These means have been used for purchasing machinery and equipment for the Ministry of defense and the National Guards of Kyrgyzstan, the border guards, and the units of the Ministry for the Interior. In all, Turkey has rendered military-technical assistance to Kyrgyzstan during the past fifteen years to a sum exceeding $3 million. Officers of the Ministry of Defense of the Kyrgyz Republic are trained at special infantry schools and also at the military medical academy of Turkey. Expenses for the training of the Kyrgyz military personnel are borne by the Turkish side. Turkish military instructors annually train Kyrgyz servicemen in mountain, special and sniper training.
The Russian Federation and the Kyrgyz Republic have consistently been developing cooperation in various spheres. Militarytechnical contacts are one of them. The Treaty on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance between the Russian Federation and the Kyrgyz Republic and the additional Treaty on cooperation in the military sphere signed on July 5, 1993, form the basis of Russian-Kyrgyz military cooperation. By now more than thirty bilateral documents pertaining to the military sphere have been signed between the two countries.
Russia and Kyrgyzstan have successfully interacted in the military sphere on a multilateral basis, too, within the framework of the Collective Security Treaty Organization. The headquarters of the collective rapid reaction forces of the Central Asian region is situated in Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan. In October 2003 a Russian airforce base was opened in the town of Kant. It was the first Russian military object deployed beyond its borders since the disintegration of the Soviet Union. This base on Kyrgyzstan's territory was set up in
accordance with the decision of the Council of collective security adopted on May 25, 2001. And on September 22, 2003, the Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Kyrgyz Republic was signed in Moscow on the status and functioning of the deployed Russia airforce base on Kyrgyzstan's territory.
The heads of the Russian and Kyrgyz foreign ministries take identical positions on practically all major world problems, closely cooperating with the United Nations and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, as well as in regional organizations - the CIS, EuAsEC, CSTO and SCO.
In the situation of the world financial-economic crisis the partner-countries have been trying to help one another to maintain vital activity at a high level. Russia granted the Kyrgyz Republic a credit on favorable terms amounting to $300 million at 0.75% interest on April 30, 2009, for a 40-year term and a seven-year standstill of debt repayment. This money goes to maintaining and developing many spheres of industry in the republic, which experiences many difficulties in the conditions of financial instability. Apart from that, the Russian Federation planned to invest $1.7 billion in the construction of Kambaratin hydropower plant and grant Kyrgyzstan free financial assistance of $150 million. In turn, the Kyrgyz Republic took an obligation to close down the American military base "Manas" and transfer 48 percent of the shares of the "Dastan" enterprise to Russia, as well as buildings for opening its cultural center in Bishkek. The Kyrgyz side received the first $450 million in the spring of 2009. However, in view of the inappropriate use of these means by the Development Fund of the Kyrgyz Republic and failure to fulfill political obligations undertaken by Kyrgyzstan's President K. Bakiyev on closing down the "Manas" base, this project was frozen, and the revolutionary events of 2010 suspended the fulfillment of all agreements.
Within the framework of the present-day realities of Central Asia Kyrgyzstan should closely cooperate with Russia. Kyrgyzstan's neighbors - Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan - constantly present territorial claims to the Kyrgyz Republic. Naturally, the latter can oppose the economically and militarily stronger countries which claim certain parts of territory near its borders only in alliance with the Russian Federation.
The structure of the economy and the list of commodities produced by most countries of the region are identical, and this is why integration is objectively replaced with competition. Kazakhstan accounts for 65 percent of the entire regional economy. On the basis of its economic potential it claims the role of the leader in Central Asia.
Mutual relations between Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan are formed under the influence of some special cultural and historical ties. The linguistic and spiritual closeness of the Kyrgyz and Kazakh peoples is an indisputable fact. The two countries actively cooperate within the framework of such international organizations as the CIS, EuAsEC, CSTO and SCO. In January 2000 Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan signed a treaty on jointly using the waters of the Chu and Talas rivers. Despite the fact that the first President of Kyrgyzstan A. Akayev, overthrown as a result of the political revolution of 2005, fled at first to Kazakhstan, the relations between the two countries did not deteriorate too much. They succeeded in agreeing on a simplified procedure of labor migration from Kyrgyzstan to Kazakhstan, and a joint venture "KazKyrgaz" was set up thanks to which Kyrgyzstan was no longer threatened by Uzbekistan stopping supplies of its gas to the Kyrgyz Republic.
However, the Kyrgyz-Kazakh relations are far from ideal. The Kazakhstan authorities are taking harsher measures with regard to Kyrgyz citizens passing through its territory. For example, the road
from Talas region of Kyrgyzstan stretches through Kazakhstan's territory, and Kyrgyz passengers are subjected to humiliating checking procedures at Kazakhstan's border points. The Kazakh border-guards introduced the new rule, according to which cars with Kyrgyz license plates are banned from driving across Kazakh territory after midnight.
There are several economic projects of Central Asian countries and China, in which the Kyrgyz Republic is also interested. Some time ago Kyrgyzstan asked China to import natural gas from Turkmenistan through Kyrgyz territory, but not through Kazakhstan, and expressed readiness to invest in this project. Kyrgyzstan, like Kazakhstan, has a common border with China and is fully dependent on gas supplies from Uzbekistan, the only source of marketable gas, and wants to diversify its import.
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have signed a framework convention on the protection of the environment. This was a result of a many-year work of the Intergovernmental commission on the stable development of the International Foundation for saving the Aral Sea. The convention envisages uniform requirements in the activity aimed at environmental protection for all Central Asian countries. The document pays special attention to scientific-technical cooperation in tackling ecological problems and elaboration of joint actions for preserving biological variety. A plan has been evolved and adopted for extraordinary ecological situation. According to the information of this Foundation, the surface area of the Aral Sea decreased four times during the period between 1960 and 2004. Out of 115.6 cubic kilometers of water of the rivers in the Aral Sea basin, 104.9 cubic kilometers are taken for economic needs. Forty-five thousand square kilometers of the former bottom of the sea have been bared, due to which local inhabitants have lost 600,000 hectares of arable and pasture land.
Relations between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan at a diplomatic level are distinguished by friendly and mutually advantageous character. After Uzbekistan's suspension of its participation in the Eurasian Economic Community, the two countries remained members of the influential regional organizations - SCO, CIS and CSTO.
One of the most disputed issues existing in Kyrgyz-Uzbek relations is the territorial problem. The border between these two countries stretching for about 1,300 kilometers is now being demarcated. According to available information, there are from 70 to 100 disputable sections, and no agreement has been reached on some of them so far. The intergovernmental commission set up for the purpose is running against many difficulties in its work. The Uzbek side upholds the principle of mapping out the border on the basis of the map of 1924, whereas Kyrgyzstan puts forward a more recent map of 1955 as the basis for negotiations.
There are two Uzbek enclaves on the territory of Kyrgyzstan -Sokh and Shahimardan numbering from 40 to 50 thousand people of Uzbek nationality. In turn, there is a Kyrgyz enclave - the village of Barak - on the territory of Uzbekistan with 589 inhabitants. In this connection the Uzbek leadership has proposed to sign an agreement with its Kyrgyz colleagues on exchanging territories with a view to including the Sokh enclave in the adjacent part of Uzbekistan. In exchange Kyrgyzstan would receive the southern part of Sokh. But the Kyrgyz side rejected the proposal on the ground that it that case it would lose two districts cut off from the main territory of Kyrgyzstan. These enclaves are a powerful instrument in the hands of the Uzbek leaders for bringing pressure to bear on Kyrgyzstan. It is known that a unit of the Uzbek armed forces was deployed in Sokh, although, in accordance with the world practice, it is forbidden to keep military forces in enclaves.
The poor state of the Kyrgyz armed forces and their inability to oppose incursions of armed militants from neighboring countries (Afghanistan included) compel the Uzbek leadership to undertake unilateral measures to defend Uzbekistan's borders. For example, the latter planted mines along its borders with Kyrgyzstan. Thus, the Kyrgyz-Uzbek interethnic equilibrium is rather unstable at the present stage. Taking into account the fact that both these countries are situated in the very center of the Central Asian region, one can say that almost constant tension existing there is threatening the stability of the region as a whole.
The Kyrgyz Republic maintains diplomatic, military-technical, trade and economic, and cultural and humanitarian relations with many countries. In this connection mention could be made of special relations of Kyrgyzstan with Belarus, Ukraine, Japan, and some other countries. But it is precisely the great powers and the states of the Central Asian region that determine the main tendencies and all aspects of the development of the Kyrgyz Republic.
«Mir i politika ". Moscow, 2012, No 2, pp. 105-111.
Alexander Shustov, Ph. D. (Hist.) (Yaroslavl) ISLAMIZATION OF CENTRAL ASIA (TAJIKISTAN, KYRGYZSTAN, KAZAKHSTAN)
Central Asia, a region with which Russia maintains versatile political, economic, military, cultural and family and kinship relations, has fallen under the growing influence of radical Islam after the disintegration of the U.S.S.R. Islamization of Central Asia is the problem not only of military security of Russia, which will become threatened in case of the destabilization of the situation in one or
