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48
Tursunova Gulbahor Nazirjanovna,
Candidate of Economy Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department «Economic Theory», dean of the faculty «Business and Management» under the Tajik State University of Law, Business
and Politics
THE HISTORY OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF CENTRAL ASIA (ON THE ISSUE OF THE GENESIS OF CAPITALISM AND HANDICRAFT INDUSTRY CONCERNED WITH MARKET FORMATION IN THE MEDIAEVAL MIDDLE
ASIA)
The exploration of social-economic prerequisites of the birth of capitalism in spealized handicraft industry, the analysis of the process of the formation and development of simple capitalist cooperation, dispersed and centralized, of the evolution of home and foreign market are the giant problems of economic and social history. Hereby, the uprise of capitalist relations accompanied with upspringing of markets in Maverannakhr, Khorezm, Khorasan are accounted for by natural internal development and penetration of progressive elements from Western Iran, Interriver Region, India, China and Russia. But, in addition, the resolute factors of first priority based on the genesis and development of capitalism in Middle Asia should be traced back to utterly local primordial prerequisites. The elements of capitalism in Middle Asia of the period of feudalism degradation appeared on the base of local national social-economic frameworks being not engrafted from outside, by Russian and English companies of the XIX-th century, in particular (1, 196-197).
The scientific studies of the economic theory of Middle Asia embracing the stages of the origin and formation of the elements of capitalism in the region were incepted by the Russian scholars in the middle of the XVIII-th century due to the explorations of V.N.Tatishchev, P.L.Rychkov and continued by L.L.Gearghi, E.K.Meyendorf, N.V.Khanykov, V.V.Velyaminov-Zernov, P.L.Nebolsin, P.L.Pashino, N.L.Mayer at the end of the century in question; the researches went on throughout the XIX-th c. Later on, a weighty contribution into the elucidation of the issue related to the birth of capitalism, to the handicraft production of Middle Asia was made by V.V.Bartold, A.Yu.Yakubovsky, A.M.Aminov, M.Y.Vakhabov, N.O.Tursunov, R.Y.Mukminova, M.B.Babakhanov, N.N.Yershov and others. However, the constituent parts of the genesis of capitalism and the formation of a respective market as the issues of the initial point, the ways of the rise of the elements of bourgeois relations based on the materials of the history concerned with Tajiks' handicrafts, the ones of other peoples of Middle Asia inclusive, remain scantily studied and poorly elucidated in home and economy history of Middle Asia; Tajikistan being implied as well.
The author of this article tried to do her best to present the picture of the process beset with the formation of prerequisites, genesis and origin of capitalist type outfits in Middle Asia during the following periods: developed Middle Ages (IX-XV cc.), late feudalism (XVIc. - the first half of the XlX-th c.), the stage of colonial supremacy of tsarist Russia (the end of the XlX-th - the beginning of the XX-th cc.).
Prefeudal cities and towns of Middle Asia - so called shakhristans were in the VI-VII cc. places of dwelling inhabited by artisans who worked for citizens; the latters doing orders to the formers. Here there functioned only domestic handicrafts being part and parcel of production in kind. Artisans working in their houses in conformity with the goods ordered catered for the needs of a governor, princes, dekhans-aristocrats and other layers of population. They weren't engaged in a production of commodities for market and other artisans comprised with goods-money relations, and the latters, to say the truth, didn't exist at that time in the form developed later, i.e., in pre-feudal Moslemic cities and towns of Middle Asia in the period of the VI-th - VII-th centuries handicraft industry was unavailable in the boundaries of shakhristans - there were no small producers who would work for market. Barter didn't achieve the level of trade in those primary cities and towns yet. Such non-economic forms of barter as donation and cultural exchange were of great importance (2, 81). According to the researches of V.V.Bartold, A.Yu.Yakubovsky, S.P.Tolstov, at the end of the VII-th - the beginning of the VIII-th centuries, i.e. in the period of the Arabic conquest of Middle Asia, next to shakhristans, in so called rabads -handicraft-trade suburbs there settled minor producers, artisans and traders who worked for market. It was in the boundaries of rabads where feudal cities and towns of Middle Asia formed (3, 173-174; 4,249-251; 5, 249-251). Rabads became places of concentration of specialized handicraft production being of minor importance, but market was focused on this kind of produce. At that time under «bozor» and those ones equivalent to the latter -we mean Arabian «sookoon» and Persian «tim» - they implied a market-square where there were retail trade, goods circulation, allocation of handicraft units being simultaneously a productive outfit, an enterprise for trading off the things produced.
Striking changes accompanied the transition of a prefeudal town to a feudal city, of handicrafts working by order to the stage of cottage industry involved into marketable-monetary relations. Change of urban-forming factors took place. If in shakhristans those were rich dekhans-landowners who performed the role of urban farmers, in rabads these were representatives of industry and trade who turned into an important potential. Quoting V.V.Bartold, «Both in Persia and Turkestan, in the XI-th c. there had established finally a type of a city (a feudal one - G.T.) which wasn't subjected to essential change since those times; it was a city with market streets traversing it from the west to the east and from the south to the north, with a market square and a central cupola (chorsu) at the place of their crossing» (3, t.II,c.249-250). Quoting O.G.Bolshakov, to the beginning of the XIX-th century there formed a feudal city of Middle Asia which existed throughout Middle Ages, up to the XIX-th century, without any changes (6, 162;270). Quoting A.Yu.Yakubovsky, «Already to the end of the X-th century the process of formation of a typical feudal city was determined in its main outlines in the mostly progressive urban units, such as Merv, Bukhara, Samarkand, Nishopur and others; in the XI-th century this process touched upon the towns of secondary importance too» (7, 15). From the point of view of ours, taking
into consideration the fact that the state of the Samanides was interested in a development of towns bound to become industrial and trading centres and in their being a political bulwark of its power, the time of a feudal city formation should be pertained to the period since the end of the IX c. up to the latest years of the X c (8,28). Adam Smith wrote about such an important prerequisite of germination of the elements of capitalism as a simple classic capitalist cooperation thus: «The greatest progress in the development of productive labour force and a considerable share of art, ability and intelligence by dint of which it is made to move were, probably, a sequence of labour division» (8, 28).
In the feudal cities and towns of Middle Asia in the period of the IX-th - the beginning of the XIII-th centuries the growth of cottage industry being a precursor of capitalist production based on manual labour was achieved in two ways: by introduction of differentiated labour tools, minor mechanization of working procedures and by involvement of labour division.
Textile production turned out to be a branch of innermost commodity capacity pertaining to handicraft industry and possessing optimal conditions for a creation of capitalist enterprises in Merv, Khorasan, Tushtar and Bukhara; in the period of the IX-X cc. there were statal weaving workshops - «baytuttiroz», «korgakh», «koziston» which firstly belonged to the Takhirides and then to the Samanids. These were big industrial establishments based on detailed commodity labour division between dependant serf workers.
Free market relations were inherent in the mostly significant centres of weaving industry; Merv, Bukhara, Bukhara oasis, Samarkand, Samarkandian Sughd, Khujand, Nishopur, Gerat being such ones. Besides a materialized form of bazaars with specialized rows, squares, trade-handicraft centres, market relations comprised also marketable-monetary circulation, leasing conditions, commercial contacts of commodity producers, vendors, consumers, hiring mechanism, use of labour force. They preconditioned a deepening of social labour division expressed in productive specialization of cities and towns, professional, social and ethnical differentiation of population (10, 204; 12,168; 13,439-453; 14; 15, 139; 16, 289). At coaching inns and trading rows of cities and towns residents and non-residents, roaming artisans, «working walkers, crazy lads» -«devonbachaho» and other representatives of semi-proletarians offered their own labour force as an object of trade for hiring. Professional specialization and social stratification of urban and rural residents preconditioned a simple capitalist cooperation, the types of dispersed, mixed and centralized manufactories. Nishopur specialized in manufacture of silk - abreshim, cotton paper - poonba, sorts of fabrics - porcha, clothes - joma. Merv was well-known for its thick and thin silk fabrics - marvi, shokhijoni. Gerat was famous for manufacture of the silk fabric mulkham, silk dressing-gowns jomai kazzin; in Djuzdan they made bald carpets. Kyat in Khorezm was a centre of «karbos» fabric production, it produced also felt called «namad». Khujand singled out with manufacturing the splendid sort of silk (quoting Yakuti Khamavi). Narshakhi (X c.) and his contemporary Istakhri asserted that such urban and rural industrial-trading settlements as Numidjkat (Bukhara), Zendana, Vardana, Iskijket specialized in cotton fabrics, especially in the variety of karbos known under the name of zandanachi. Samarkand took
the upper hand over Maverannakhr and Khorasan in the production of silvery (simgoon), red (surkh), flaxen (katini), «sinizi» fabrics.
The destructive and tragic aftermath of the Mongolian conquest was terrible and dire. According to the information extracted by A.Yu.Yakubovsky, in the course of hundred years - since the middle of the XIII-th century up to the middle of the XlV-th century - all over Maverannakhr, Khorezm, Khorasan, Iran people repaired roads, bridges and erected new ones, restored old cities and towns, built new urban settlements. A positive picture of feudal cities and cottage industry of Central Asia of the period in question is generally outlined. We haven't had any weighty arguments which would confirm any activities of enterprises of a type of dispersed manufactory based on application of free hired labour. But at the same time we can't deny the fact of their being under the auspices of a capitalist-handicraftsman or a buyer-up who organized the entire technological cycle according to the system of detailed commodity labour division including the initial stages of spinning cotton, flaxen, downy yarn, unreeling cocoons, reeling silk and the final one of putting out ready-made manufactured fabric bound to be sold both at home and foreign markets. One of the consequences of the Mongolian conquest was a steep augmentation of the number of slaves and an extension of their labour usage in fiscal and private workshops called korkhona (17,126).
In the period of Timur's and Timurids' governance (1370 - 1507) there developed cottage handicraft industry and international trade which activized obviously. Rather precise notions of economic history testify to it: arbobi sanoat - industrial population; peshravon, peshakoron - artisans, businessmen; khunarmardon, khunarvaron -factory hands, skillful men; jomabofon - weavers; bazzozkhona - storage or trading shop for textile goods; baytulmol - state fisk; chakknorbozor - transitive markets forming a week cycle; urdabozor - markets under tsar's or emir's headquarters (18).
According to the data of numismatics, the period comprising the end of the XV-th century is characterized as the one of maximal development of marketable-monetary relations. An increase of the amount of goods of broad consumption produced for minor retail trade, an enhanced involvement of rank-and-file citizens and a part of rural population into marketable-monetary relations are considered to be the peculiarities of the period in question (19, 83; 20,77).
Zahiridin Bobur estimated Samarkand of the beginning of the XVI-th century as a «wonderful city with good amenities distinguished with specialized bazaars and trading rows. This city possesses a specificity rarely occurred in other ones: a special bazaar is allotted for a separate category of commodities, so the latters are not mingled with one another» (21, 73. Proceeding from this sequence, the following statements are worth mentioning: in the first, the tendency of allocating special bazaars for certain branches of cotton industry was inherent in all the big cities of Middle Asia mentioned above; in the second, availability of specialized bazaars, trading rows, squares and residential blocks in cities and towns evidenced of the outfits of dispersed manufactory functioning in them; as for organization of production it was arranged by industrial handicraftsmen and buyers-up (arbobi sanoe va jallobon).In the third, there took place a spontaneous process of separation between trade and handicraft.
The process of separation of trade from production found its reflection in special terminology: furtabof - a weaver who manufactures a variety of semi-cotton and semi-downy cloth (weft - cotton yarn, woof - downy thread); furtafurush - buyer-up of furta; chomaduz - tailor of dressing-gowns; chomafurush - buyer-up of ready-made clothes.
As for distribution of raw stuffs and labour organization of a small producer who worked for a buyer-up, there evinced the fact of existence of a dispersed manufactory; traders-mediators cornered fabrics, other goods and semi-finished products from a direct producer or a rural buyer-up; after it they arranged a production of ready commodities in isolated workshops. Researcher R.G.Mukminova extracted the data from the written sources of the XVI-th century and ascertained the names of capitalists-buyers-up of Samarkand and Bukhara who lived in this century; among them there are Arya-khan, Tangri Berdi, Mizza Salim - Maulan Ibraghim Said's son; here refers also the family of Djuybar sheikhs who were engaged in arrangement of production and offtrading of goods (22, 187-191; 23, 46-48).
In the course of over hundred fifty years - since the beginning of the XVII-th up to the middle of the XVIII-th cc. - the entire Central Asia was sustaining a hard economic crisis. Only in the middle of the XVIII-th century there started a degradation of feudalism accompanied with a formation of capitalist relations. Quoting Greek merchant Nikolay Grigoryev (the middle of the XVIII-th century), at that time there existed the production under the title «manufacturing factory» in Bukhara which united the handicrafts on unreeling cocoons, reeling silk and weaving silk clothes (porcha and velvets) (24, 19-20). Russian interpreter Mendiyar Bekchurin having been to Bukhara in 1781 in the staff of the embassy noted the existence of functioning «minor factories» producing silk and cotton fabrics and belonging to independent owners (25,303-304).
In the 70-ies of the XVIII-th century Philipp Yefremov wrote: «chadra» - a white feminine veil, a counterpane in full woman's size and «a wide sackcloth» - plain rough cotton fabric were manufactured in dispersed outfits comprising specialized handicrafts on : 1) refining of cotton filament - pakhtakashi; 2) spinning - resandaghi; 3) warping -tortani; 4) adjustment into a weaving loom - gulabardori; 5) weaving - korbofa, porchabofa; 6) boiling, starching, bleaching - ishkordihi, ohardihi, shustagari (26,30-41;27).
Philipp Nazarov, when in Kokand khanate in the years of 1813-1814, payed attention to the productive resources of textile industry in Khujand, Marghelan, Ura-Tyube, Tashkent and the capital of the khanate. Cotton, semi-silk and silk fabrics manufactured in the enumerated centres of Kokand khanate were used as a money equivalent in commercial relations between Russia and Middle Asia. From the information delivered by Ph.Nazarov it follows that textile outfits of the cities and towns located in the Ferghana Valley, Khujand and Ura-Tyube inclusive, conducted active trade not only with Bukhara, Khiva and Kashgaria, but with Turkmens, Arabs, Karateghin, Darvaz, the Pamirs, Falgara, Matcha, Yagnob; they provided also southern and northern Kirghizes and Kazakhs.
In 1820 captain E.K.Meyendorf, in 1830 khorunzhiy (colour bearer) N.Y.Potanin, in 1850 economist P.L.Nebolsin witnessed the activities of the outfits pertaining to dispersed manufactory as a combination of self-sufficient handicrafts, managed by stock
owners (28, 114-115; 29; 30; 31, 26). Later on the thesis on a genesis of capitalism in Middle Asia in the period preceding its conquest by tsarist Russia was elaborated in the researches of A.M.Aminov and N.O.Tursunov (32, 21-128).
Proceeding from such indices of technique and economics of capitalist manufactory as detailed commodity division of labour, numerosity of «partial workers» or «detailers» (terms made up by K.Marx and V.Lenin), standard of specialization we determined the cities and towns of Bukhara,Samarkand, Marghelan with Sart Tajik residents transformed into Turks during the period of the XVI-th - XVIII-th cc. as the main centres of textile industry in Middle Asia of the colonial period which befell the end of the XIX-th - the beginning of the XX-th centuries.
According to documentary archive materials an early type of centralized manufactory which united handicrafts on silk unreeling, twisting and warping formed firstly in Khujand in the 80-ies of the XIX-th century. Analogical establishments in Bukhara, Samarkand, Marghelan, Hissar, Karatag were instituted only at the beginning of the XX-th century. In the contiguous countries of the Orient the era of capitalist manufactory came considerably later. Thus, to the south of the Amu-Darya, in the boundaries of Afghanistan, capitalist manufactory appeared on the eve of the second world war, in 1939. Thereby, capitalist home work became widely spread (33, 46). The author of the given article composed a catalogue comprising technic-economic features of 32 cottage weaving manufactory establishments of Khujand and its suburbs at the beginning of the XX-th century. Out of thirty two elicited textile capitalists of Khujand twenty four persons were industrialists, handicraftsmen-ustokors; three men belonged to the stratum of big state officials; two of them pertained to the category of rich merchants; two others were referred to buyers-up; one individual was a newly-fledged mill-owner. In the light of authentic facts related to the activities of big enterprises of capitalist manufactory type one can advance a thesis on the formation of private capitalism structure in the economics of Tajikistan in Middle Asian context at the beginning of the XX-th century.
LITERATURE:
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Г.Н. Турсунова
История экономического развития Центральной Азии (к вопросу об индустрии генезиса капитализма и ремесленничества с формированием рынка в средневековой Средней
Азии)
Ключевые слова: капиталистическое производство, ткацкая промышленность, центры ткачества в Ферганской долине, предпосылки образования предприятий, рыночные отношения в Средней Азии
В настоящей статье автор рассматривает малоразработанную проблему генезиса и эволюции ремесленной промышленности в средневековой Средней Азии.
На материале письменных источников, научной литературы освещается процесс складывания предпосылок, генезиса и развития предприятий политеистического типа, характеризуются важнейшие центры ткацкой промышленности. В статье отражён процесс образования и формирования рынка и рыночных отношений в Средней Азии.
G.N. Tursunova
The History of Economic Development of Central Asia (on the Issue of the Genesis of Capitalism
and Handicraft Industry Concerned with Market Formation in the Mediaeval Middle Asia) Key words: capitalist production, weaving industry, centres of weaving in the Ferghana Valley, prerequisites of the formation of enterprises, market relations in Middle Asia
The article dwells on the scantily studied problem of genesis and evolution of handicraft industry in the mediaeval Middle Asia.
Proceeding from the materials of written sources, scientific literature the author elucidates the process of the formation concerned with genesis and development of the enterprises of capitalist type; the process of the formation of market and market relations in Middle Asia being canvassed as well, she presents the major features of the most important centres of weaving industry pertaining to the epoch in question.
