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Section 6. History
References:
1. Ife brass heads are part of a group of naturalistic head sculptures, found in and around Ile Ife; the spiritual capital of the Yorfiba in the early 20th century. They are mostly made of brass, bronze, stone and terra cotta. For detailed introduction, see: Meyerowitz H., Meyerowitz V Bronzes and Terra-Cottas from Ile-Ife.//The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. -1939. - Vol. 75. - No. 439. - P. 150-55.
2. Adepegba C. Osun and Brass: An Insight into Yorfiba Religious Symbology In Osun across the waters/Eds.: J. Murphy, Mei-Mei Sanford. - Indiana: University Press, 2001. - Р. 102-112.
3. Chikwendu V E., Farquhar R. M., Craddock P. T., Shaw T. and Umeji A. C. Nigerian Sources of Copper, Lead and Tin for the Igbo-Ukwu Bronzes.//Archaeometry. - 1981. - Vol. 13. No. 1. - Р. 27-36.
4. Aimiuwu O. E. Oduduwa.//Nigerian Magazine. - 1971. - No. 107. - Р. 85-90.
5. Johnson S. The History of the Yorfiba: From the earliest times to the Beginning of the British Protectorate. - Lagos: CSS Limited, 1921.
6. Adepegba C. Yorfiba Metal Sculpture. - Ibadan: University Press, 1991. - Р. 32-34.
7. Baker H. Examination of Ife Bronze Heads.//Man. - 1965. - Vol. 65. - No. 10. - Р. 23-24.
8. Warner O., Willett F. The Composition of Brasses from Ife and Benin.//Archaeometry. - 1975. - Vol. 17. - No. 2.
9. Connah G. Three Thousand Years in Africa. - Cambridge: University Press, 1981. - 176 p.
10. Ponting M. The Scientific Analysis and Investigation of A Selection of the Copper-Alloy Metalwork from Tiberias In Tiberias: excavations in the house of the bronzes. - Hebrew: University ofJerusalem, 2008. - Р. 37-39.
11. Thornton C. Of brass and bronze in prehistoric Southwest Asia In Metals and mining: studies in archaeometallurgy/Eds.: S. LaNiece, D. Hook, P. Craddock. - London: 2007. - Р. 123-135.
12. Craddock P. T. The Copper Alloys of the Medieval Islamic World - Inheritors of the Classical Tradition.//World Archaeology. - 1979. - Vol. 11. - No. 1. - Р. 68-79.
13. Shaw T. Spectrographic Analyses of Igbo and other Nigerian bronzes.//Archaeometry. - 1965. - 8. - 95 p.
14. Ponting M. T. East meets West in Post-Classical Bet She’an: The Archaeometallurgy of Culture Change//Journal of Archaeological Science. - 1999. - 26. - Р. 1311-1321.
Yarkulov Alisher Atakulovich, Principle Scientific-Production Department for the preservation and utilization of objects of cultural heritage E-mail: yorqulov_a@mail.ru
Development of the society of the middle ages Naxkshab
Abstract: Southern Sogd (Naxkshab) one is ancient country of Central Asia. In the article is analyzed scientific principles of progress society early middle ages of Naxkshab.
Keywords: early middle ages, Naxkshab, handicraft, ceramist, terracotta, symbiosis, metallurgy, glass-making.
The territory known since the early Middle Ages as a Naxkshab, in ancient times, according to written sources, called Ksenippa [1, 85-94]. Based on the opinion of the Israeli researcher Shauket Shaul, the famous French archaeologist Franz Grene noted that “the terms Knesippa and Ksane are different forms of pronunciation of single-rooted term Naxkshab”. If this assumption is true, the name of Karshi oasis in the whole path of historical development has always been Naxkshab and only after the conquest of the Arabs became a Nasaf [2, 260].
Until the formation of early medieval craft production in Naxkshab as in other historic areas, preserve and develop pottery traditions of ancient times. However, with the advent of the banks of the Syr Darya Chionites pastoral communities, and later replaced Ephtalites very graceful and harmonious pottery objects of antiquity came several sets of ceramic products, differing in form and colors of the old materials.
A similar picture is observed not only in ceramic complexes Naxkshab V-VI centuries, but in the ceramic basic agricultural oases of Central Asia.
In the archaeological literature there is an opinion that the cities of Central Asia in its early medieval development is a stand-alone locks fortress or a cluster of houses, and even Samarkand was added to a number of cities. According to the proponents of this idea around these fortified castles were huge empty space on the site which later formed densely built neighborhoods. However, the study of ceramics Yerkurgan quarter shows that in the V-VI centuries, the houses were built very tight, and along the side of the road from the southern to the northern gate of the city, located homeownership masters ceramists.
Quarter ceramists, in turn, consisted of group workshops, owned by five maj or, patriarchal individual genera, uniting the family of potters.
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Development of the society of the middle ages Naxkshab
Households ceramics consisted of 3-4 or even 6-7 rooms. Some of the houses are open to the main entrance there was a street of the city through a very narrow corridor into the inner room of the house. Such a provision in the quarter is a sign of ceramists high cost of land within the city. Detection of helical residues “ladder” in the household № 8 confirms that, in order to ensure the housing member of the family, based on the financial possibilities of the population was made to build a two-storey house.
In an effort to meet the needs of the population ceramic workshops were working very intensively. That is why we reject the theory that “in the early Middle Ages some specialty shops reached its climax so much that they began to produce ceramic products of a specific type”. But it would be wrong to say vkorne that have artistic value, elegant small plastic products, including “terracotta statuettes, vessels with false figures zoomorphic, anthropomorphic theme” produced all the potters. Such “out of serial” products are essentially pieces of art could only be very talented and experienced craftsmen, which is confirmed by the results of archaeological excavations.
Excavation № 5, Manufactured in the northern quarter of ceramists, including laid there microstratigraphic pit revealed that ceramic production continued here continuously since the first century BC up to the V-VI centuries BC, and thus handed down as a dynastic profession. Our assumption is confirmed by the fact that pottery production continued in the southern part of the quarter and in VII-VIII centuries, even when the city, which existed on the site Yerkurgan, fell into decay [3, 205].
A survey of households ceramists Yerkurgan shows that almost was not revealed standard 3-4 or 5-6 room houses. On the contrary, each household -oriented production of ceramic products, based on their capabilities had a big, multi- sector. There were open and very small farms of 2-3 rooms.
Households potters were well adapted both for life and for work. Here are workrooms, kiln, a potter’s wheel, home sanctuary, a guest room, “internal” room and a winter.
Due to the fact that a certain part of the quarter of potters was opened fully, to reveal fine detail, paints a picture of their everyday life. Among them should be noted sufa square shape (stone) in the premises of the sanctuaries, which are usually staged idols made of wood, terracotta or just clay. For example, in the household № 3 was found the upper part of the clay figurines, which are well preserved left side of the face shape hairstyle, black left eye and a large mole, painted in red. Since the idol was kept close to the sacred fire, his face is often covered with soot, but again and again restored. On a broken part of the figurines are observed layered traces of paint and wash. In the rest of the statues should be worn clothes that were washed from time to.
Archaeological research conducted on the site Yerkurgan allowed to trace a number of customs and rituals of the cult character. Thus, one of the workshop buildings surveyed had a room № 28 this section prayer, which was accessible only through № 27, after the worship of the deity. This is evidenced
by the presence of the marble pedestal with top ceramic stand. Upon entering the room № 28, it had a special fence. Coming into this room, potters brought with them samples of their products, prepared for roasting to the rite of sacrifice to the deity of fire. Fragments prepared for firing pottery were found in this area.
In studying ceramics quarter observed the following: after a sprawl management, it becomes a separate, or conversely, by combining several individual farms receive one major.
Ceramists, along with its main products — tableware, produced a large number of terracotta figurines zoomorphic, anthropomorphic character, and then engaged in their implementation.
Layer V-VI centuries on the sites of Karshi oasis made to date mainly “miniature jug Naxkshab”. First we thought that the oldest were small jugs and later appeared slightly larger vessels. However, in the course of the excavations, which were carried out in the quarter ceramists Yerkurgan were raised and jugs of both volume and finding them in a single layer made us reconsider the earlier view. Thus, in layers V-VI centuries Karshi oasis along with miniature jugs were also larger.
The exact stratigraphic complexes prepared us in the quarter ceramists V-VI centuries, show that they are fundamentally different from the systems of the former period. However, this period can be dated to the era Ephtalites as complexes retain a clear ethnic lines. For this reason, the complexes of this period combine culture and Ephtalites Sogdians, and we call it a period of “Sogdian-Ephtalite symbiosis” The archaeological materials, this fact is reflected, as studying them we can trace going back to the ancient traditions of local cultures Connect farming communities.
S. K. Kabanov assumed that the image “of the ruler Naxkshab” refer to the III-IV centuries, and this finding is relevant to Parthia. In our opinion, this image should be dated V-VI centuries, and it is likely to be the image of “deified ruler Naxkshab”.
Pottery continued to develop Yerkurgan and VII-VIII centuries. One of the most characteristic features of ceramic production in this period was its output outside the settlement. So, in the end Yerkurgan VI-VII century, all the early ceramic furnace were transferred outside the farm.
Another characteristic feature of the industry is the emergence of craft dishes as if in imitation of gold and silver, that is, sprinkled with mica surface of tableware, as well as widespread vessel with a spout — drain, with patch to stick anthropomorphic and zoomorphic themes.
In the southern part Yerkurgan during excavations revealed Karaultepa ceramic complexes of the second half of the VIII- IX century, first half. The thing is that in these complexes proved to be a few pieces of cookware coated with glaze of dark green color and blood vessels, resembling Sogdian mugs. Consequently, the dating of these systems is no doubt that late 20-ies VIII century.
In Central Asia, the production of glass products is rooted in the mists of time. It is known that in ancient times was
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Section 6. History
made a lot of jewelry, especially necklaces. In ancient times, in the southern regions of Central Asia appeared glazed dishes, but it is not widespread. After the conquest by the Arabs in the region once again penetrated the technology of manufacturing glazed ceramics and IX-XIII centuries, its production reached its highest point of development. For the manufacture of glazed ceramics has developed several such schools as Samarkand, Ferghana, Tokharistan and others.
Since ancient times Naxkshab different from other oases its development of metallurgy and metal processing features [4, 28]. Stratigraphic pit inherent in the quarter Metalworkers allowed to come to the conclusion that the dynasty of metalworkers conducted here its traditional activities from the middle of I- millennium BC up to the early medieval period. The study of early medieval ceramics quarter showed that metalworkers lived large patriarchal families and produce the products according to the demands of the time, the market. Historically, artisans engaged in jewelry business, metalprocessing, glass-lived in the neighborhood. Very often, the master engaged in core activities, side handle other work. Thus, the metal if necessary, to produce a variety of glass products and ceramic artists in the warm season produces ceramic products, the cold could be engaged in carpet weaving or woven fabric.
A very characteristic phenomenon of everyday life metalworkers was the location of their shops close to the houses. Archaeological surveys show that their shops were always separate from the residential buildings. As you know, the workshops were usually located near the bazaars in city squares or roadsides of the main roads.
Discovered on the site Kultepa armaments and household equipment does not lag behind in the quality of such metal products Panjikent, who was known as one of the largest craft centers Metal Processing your time [5, 65; 6, 50].
On the ruins of Penjikent it was received extensive archaeological material, as well as findings that determine the level of development of metallurgy and metalworking, which falls between “Sogdian — Turkic symbiosis" This industry has developed synchronously in the territories Naxkshab.
During excavations in the ancient settlement Naxkshab was found only a few glass bottles. Judging by the small size they were intended to hold women cosmetic balms based on plant essential oils. Glassmaking different areas of Central Asia produced glass vessels such as small size, as well as on Yerkur-gan. In Penjikent masters produced little more than 5 kinds of bottles. They differ from each other by the presence of a variety of patterns welded from the outside.
In Central Asia, including in the Karshi oasis glassmaking began to gain momentum with the arrival of the Arabs in the region. Glass produced in large cities consisted of five minerals silica oxide, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. Production of various types of glass vessels was intensively developed in the IX-X centuries [7, 28].
It is known that Ephtalites established their dominance in Naxkshab in 468 year, according to Chinese sources in the period from 558 to 568 years the leader of the Turks
managed to conquer Silzibul Ephtalites. During the Sassanid rule Hormizd V (579-590 years) the talented Iranian commander Bahram Chubin anticipating the threat from Sogd, undertook a campaign against Maverannahr and managed to occupy Samarkand.
According to M. E. Masson, the right bank of the Amu Darya River to keep the basic rate was the city of Qala-Zahhaki Maron, who is of Armenian manuscripts referred to as “Ka-zbiyan" 35 km. south-west from the city of Karshi and still is Kasbi village in whose territory remained very high fortress. We assume that is mentioned in Armenian sources “Kazbiyan" is the hill overlooking the village in Kasbi. In the realm of central confederation of Sogd observed constancy of the ruling.
So, speaking about the Big and Small An in the Bukhara oasis Chinese sources report that 627 year ruling dynasty is not changed, in Fergana IV century ruled a dynasty, rulers of Samarkand and pedigree goes back to the Yuezhi. In general, all this means that during the wars of conquest the conquerors left local rulers in the same status, charging them with responsibility for their collection, temporary taxes. Ephtalites, and a little later the Turks to adhere to this way of controlling local populations.
Capital of the state Ephtalites was Badia, which was located in the vicinity of the modern city of Kunduz. However, in written sources reported that the governor comes here only for three months and hibernates in a huge yurt. In one of this fact it can be concluded that the governor of the country came from the pastoral tribes.
Whatever it was, when Ephtalites as later in the Turks, their policy was aimed at maintaining the existing system, which does not hurt either craftsmen or farmers or herders. Despite the fact that the country was conquered during the war, the local handicraft production did not stop, but on the contrary — will soon be fully recovered, began to develop more intensively.
According to reports, the economic, political and cultural life in the upper reaches of Kashkadarya at the beginning of VII century, was much more developed compared to the other possessions of Sogd. In “Tanshu" (618-907) found evidence that after the administrative reform of 658-659 years. Shi ownership was converted into a district Kui-sha or Kye-Shuang and it was composed of possession of a neighboring Nashebo, i. e. Naxkshab. That is why the cache in this period was the largest holdings of the Sogd, who was one of the first to establish diplomatic relations with China. Must be in this period Naxkshab admitted on a domination of Kesh. Probably for this reason, the Chinese called it “Little Shi”. Addition Aultepa settlement between Kesh and Naxkshab, the emergence of Naxkshab dishes sprinkled with mica, distribution of ceramic products in the form of zoomorphic figures confirm the nature of the expansion of the sphere of influence of Kesh in Sogd. In the production of ceramic production, metalworking and glassmaking Naxkshab felt the proximity of the handicraft traditions of Samarkand.
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Development of the society of the middle ages Naxkshab
In the Chinese sources there are indications that, in 657, the Western Turk Empire defeated confederation Kahn. In 658, the Samarkand again spoke to the political arena. In VI-VII centuries in Kesh dominated Turkic dynasty. Data from written sources say that while Samarkand Sogd submitted to such ownership as Maymurg, Ishtyhan, Kesh and Naxkshab.
The constant shortage of water in the Karshi oasis influenced the appearance of historical towns, their development and even handicrafts. Because people always had to depend on water resources, one of the capital cities Naxkshab (Arabized form of Nasaf), not by chance formed on the banks of Kashkadarya, at the head of water distribution.
If at first the main factor in the development of the city were water, then later by factors become more and development of handicraft production, agriculture, and is also very important was finding a city at the crossroads of major trade routes of transit.
In the era of the Arab conquest of Central Asia, the Kashkadarya oasis turned into one of the main centers of persistent resistance to the invaders. Perhaps that is why in the arch Shullyuktepa fortress, built in the early Middle Ages, is still preserved in the Kashkadarya oasis as one
of the highest. One of the cities with similar high strength and was Kaspi (Cesbio).
At the end of the VIII century Nasaf became the focus of the fight against the Arab conquerors. A craftsman from the area ofMerv Mukanna became the leader of the uprising that swept the population Nasaf and Kesh. An important role in the armed anti-Arab movement was played by the population of the city Subahu (The ruins of this ancient city are located near the modern highway Karshi- Guzar and referred to by local people as Uliktepa (City of the Dead)). When in 806 in Samarkand fight broke out against the Arabs, once again came to the aid of Nasaf.
Some time later, when the south came to power Tahirids, Nasaf was a part of Samarkand.
Already in the Islamic period, Nasaf became a major center of metal processing industries, the level of which can be judged by the content of multilayer garbage pits Shullyuktepa workshops. The presence of numerous large cities and developed during the early Middle Ages in the lower reaches of Karshi oasis (Nasaf concerning, Altyntepa, Kasbi, Bezden et al). Says that in these settlements flourished craftwork. Since the period of the rule of the Samanids in written sources began to appear a lot of mention of Nasaf and its surrounding towns.
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