CC BY
27
Organizational Psychology, 2023, Vol. 13, No. 2, P. 193-206. DOI: 10.17323/2312-5942-2023-13-2-193-206
ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
www.orgpsyjournal.hse.ru
Internal marketing and employees' perception of organizational performance in the maritime organization: The mediator and moderator role of satisfaction and work experience
Nihan §ENBURSA
0000-0001-5144-4240
Ali TEHCI
0000-0001-9949-2794
Ordu University Fatsa, Ordu, Turkey
Abstract. Purpose. This research aims to bring to light the relationship between organizational performance perceptions of the employees in the maritime sector, employee satisfaction and internal marketing. Study design. The data obtained through a questionnaire from 357 office workers in a Turkish ship-owner company were tested with the Structural Equation Model using SPSS 24.0 AMOS 21.0 statistical package program. The large percentage of the study's participants are men. However, it can be said that the distribution obtained in the research is in parallel with the ratio of female and male employees in the maritime business. Most of the employees work in the operations department of the company, followed by the management, marketing and logistics departments, respectively. Findings. As a result, it was determined that internal marketing has a positive effect on employees' perception of organizational performance. In addition, job satisfaction has a mediating role in the effect of internal marketing on organizational performance of employees, also work experience has a moderating role in the impact of internal marketing on organizational performance of employees. Value of the results. In the future this study might be applied to seafarers or other maritime industry employees. Authors expect that this study will shed light on both researchers who study on similar subjects and organizations that would like to expand their horizon in terms of employee relations.
Keywords: employee satisfaction, internal marketing, organizational performance perception, maritime employees, work experience.
Introduction
The most important capital of organizations is human resources and trained manpower. The concept of the employee is more important than ever for the success of the organizations, as the performance of the employees affect the colleagues they work with in a positive way. In other words, in today's volatile and hypercompetitive organizational environment, employees are critical to nearly all organizations, so much diligence has recently been given to employee satisfaction (ES)
Address: Evkaf, Arslan Aydinlik Cd. 1a, 52400 Fatsa, Ordu, Turkey. E-mail: nihan.senbursa@gmail.com
and organizational performance perception (OPP) as well employee loyalty (Phuong, Vinh, 2021). Employee performance is regarded as the industry's backbone. As a result, organizations strive to gain the employees' loyalty (Shahzad et al., 2012). Organizational performance is identified as the company's capability to achieve its objectives by utilizing resources productively and profitably (Daft, 2000). According to R. Ricardo and D. Wade, organizational performance is explained as achieving organizational goals and targets (Ricardo, Wade, 2001). Recognizing a worker's excessive work is eventful to his or her job satisfaction. Employee satisfaction benefits businesses as well as employees (Kaye, Jordan-Evans, 1999). Internal marketing (IM) encourages participation and commitment to organizational programs. Internal marketing recognizes and eliminates barriers that divide employees and fragment organizational action (Ahmed, Rafiq, 2003). In other words, employees working in organizations that adopt internal marketing activities will be more satisfied with the work environment and less likely to quit. Furthermore, higher job satisfaction leads to higher job performance and productivity for businesses (Almutairi et al., 2013). Foregoing studies approved the relationships between employee satisfaction and performance of employee (Dugguh, Dennis, 2014; Nabi et al, 2016) and loyalty of employees and organizational performance (Elegido, 2013; Brown, McHardy, McNabb, Taylor, 2011). Previous research results have revealed positive relationships between ES and OP. Even though there are former academic papers on the correlations among employee satisfaction, internal marketing and organizational performance, few investigations in the maritime sector employees exists since the dynamics of maritime sector is quite different than others. The objective of this paper was to reveal the structural relationships between internal marketing (IM), organizational performance perception (OP) and employee satisfaction (ES), in addition to the influence of moderating and mediating variables on these relationships.
Literature review
Organizational performance
The success of an organization normally relies on the performance of each individual employee. (Pushpakumari, 2008). To increase productivity in a company, the organization need to establish and come up with solutions that can improve employee job performance. E. E. Lawler and L. W. Porter indicate that performance is in each scenario, the performance of an individual's talent, skill or effort (Lawler, Porter, 1967). According to H. Aguinis, "the definition of performance excludes the outcomes of a worker's comportments, but only the comportments themselves" (Aguinis, 2009). Evaluations of organizational performance have an impact on two important career outcomes: advancement opportunities and employee satisfaction (Greenhaus et al.,1990). On the other hand, it could be discussed that a good communication with one's boss, characterized by reverent comportment and the provision of appropriate knowledge and fair back indication, is a beneficial situation for giving performance well at work (Williams, 1999). Maintaining employee loyalty allows for a rise in organizational performance and is critical for maintaining a market benefit and title (Tehci, Senbursa, 2021). The more satisfied employees are, the more loyal they are to their company, and a superior rate of employee loyalty allows for a rise in organizational performance. To motivate employee satisfaction, an organization should consider identifying the factors that contribute to employee satisfaction, since it increases commitment, which has an affirmative effect on organizational performance (Jigjiddorj et al., 2019).
Internal marketing
The conceptual definition of IM, which started to be argued in the marketing literature towards the end of the 1970s, was first used by L. Berry. He argued that organizations can employ talented
employees by applying the same marketing efforts to their internal customers as they have applied to increase and retain their external customers, and that businesses can improve business performance by developing and retaining these employees with similar studies (Berry, 1981). Internal marketing means that the employees who communicate directly with the external customers of the service companies are included in the training processes and their motivation is increased to labor as a group or team to provide the external customer satisfaction (Kotler, Armstrong, 2010). Besides, from a marketing viewpoint, internal marketing employees consider the internal customer, the activities as the product and the business as a market (Tsai, Tang, 2008). Internal customers are all employees in the business, regardless of their grade (Tehci, Senbursa, 2023). Considering that the needs of the customers themselves can be best known by the customers, it would be beneficial to reconsider the concept of market orientation from this perspective. Being market-oriented means not only paying attention to customers or competitors, but also to all stakeholders who have an impact on the decision-making process of customers, and primarily to internal customer opinions. Internal customers are valued in line with their contribution to production processes (Conduit, Mavondo, 2001). In line with this information, the following hypothesis was determined.
H1: Internal marketing has a positive effect on employees'perception of organizational performance.
Employee satisfaction
Employee satisfaction is becoming more and more under the spotlight of the organizations. Improving employee satisfaction is one of the most difficult subjects confronting today's business leaders (Jigjiddorj et al., 2019). Employees assign human characteristics to their organizations (Otto, Mamatoglu, 2015). Organizations that have been training employees for many years have started to give more importance to employee satisfaction under brutal competition conditions. In recent years, organizations need to concentrate on ways that will augment their satisfaction of employees and motivation to maintain their significant benefit over competing organizations. Employee satisfaction means working with higher performance, and high-performance means satisfying external customers. L. Berry and A. Parasuraman, who are the pioneers of IM, stated that the employees are internal customers in the field of activity of the enterprise, therefore, the expectations and demands of the employees must be satisfactorily met for the organizations to reach the goals they have determined (Toksari, 2012). To gratify the external customer, it is foreseen that the internal customer needs to be satisfied first. The more satisfied the internal customer is, the better it will perform to satisfy the external customer. Another dimension of job satisfaction is that work life affects the whole life of the individual and becomes a reason for life satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction and family and social life of the employee are in close relationship. In cases where job satisfaction is insufficient, life satisfaction will also be low (Davis, 1988). As per some researchers, employee satisfaction is primarily the result of internal HR practices and motivational activities that support workforce to grant increased levels of customer service (Gelade, Young, 2005).
Loyal employees working in the organization for many years increase people's perception of OPP. Employee loyalty, like ES and OPP, is critical to the achievement of any business. As a result, the organization's policies are always targeted at increasing employee loyalty to long-term tenure (Phuong, Vinh, 2021). High employee loyalty and commitment result in developed organizational performance (Gould-Williams, 2003). Because employee loyalty is a crucial determinant in organizational performance perception, increasing employee satisfaction and making them feel valued by the company is the most efficient way to improve (Reichheld, 2006; Schneider, 2003). Besides, studied the factors of a loyal employee foresight and either loyalty of employee effects workplace performance or not (Brown et al., 2011). Higher loyal workers are related to improved organizational performance perception after using paired employee level data extracted from the
2004 UK working place and examined human resources relations survey. According to previous research findings, it has been discovered that employee loyalty has a positive correlation and plays an important part in defining organizational performance (Brown et al., 2011). Loyal employees increase people's perception of corporate performance. IM influences the organizational performance perception of the employees, and the work experience of the employee has a moderating role as well. Therefore, in this study hypothesis have in sights to reveal the relationship between OPP, ES, and IM in the maritime sector. Hereby, the following hypotheses are offered:
H2: Employee satisfaction has a mediating role in the effect ofinternal marketing on organizational performance perception of employees.
H3: Work experience has a moderating role in the impact of internal marketing on organizational performance perception of employees.
Methodology
This current study was carried out for the employees of an organization running in the maritime industry in Turkey. Within the context of the research, internal marketing was readapted from S. K. Foreman and A. H. Money (1995), employee satisfaction (Agho et al., 1992) and organizational performance scale was adapted from Y. Choi and Y. Yu, (2014). Figure 1 illustrates the model developed as part of the research.
Figure 1. Model of the study
The research data were obtained because of the questionnaire applied to the employees of the relevant company between 20/01/2022 — 05/02/2022 (N = 357) with the convenience sampling method. The first primary part of the questionnaire covers the factors of IM, ES, OPP. These factors were also adapted for the participants and applied accordingly. In the questionnaire applied with the Five-point Likert Scale, the participants were proposed to answer each of the statements as in accordance with their own situation. The questions in the second part of the study were aimed at determining the demographic features of the employees, such as female/male, marital stage, age, educational background, and the years of organizational experience and department of the employees. It is stated that the Cronbach alpha coefficient is a frequently exercised method to evaluate the reliability of Likert scale questions (Nakip et al., 2010). The degree of validity which the thing that can be measured or that it can be measured without being confused with other things (Baç, 2010). One of the methods used for validity analysis is factor analysis. In this direction, the reliability and trustworthiness of the scales exercised in the research was tested using the SPSS 24.0 statistical package program and the Cronbach's alpha coefficient method, and hypothesis were tested by using the AMOS 21.0 statistical package program.
The Structural Equation Model (SEM), which clearly considers the measurement errors while analyzing the data statistically, differs from other statistical methods in that it can examine many relationships as models (Schumacker, Lomax, 2015). SEM, which can describe the variables' cause-and-effect relationship and allows the models to be tested as a whole, was utilized to improve, and test the theoretical model and the hypotheses determined in line with the research model in Figure 1 were tested with SEM.
Results
Since the research was managed for the employees of the maritime organization, the demographic findings of the employees of the organization taking part in the research are demonstrated as follows in Table 1.
Table 1. Information about the participants
Parametrs N % Parameters N %
Education status Gender
Primary school 4 1.1 Female 68 19
High school 25 7.1 Male 289 81
Undergraduate 270 75.6 Marital status
Postgraduate 58 16.2 Married 211 59.1
Position Single 146 40.9
Director 167 46.8 Age
Specialist 58 16.2 18-25 22 6.2
Technical staff 28 7.8 26-33 107 30
Office worker 38 10.6 34-41 109 30.5
Salesperson 34 9.5 42-49 74 20.7
Other 32 9.1 50 + 45 12.6
Experience
Over five years 174 48.7
Less than five years 183 51.3 Total 357 100
Table 1 points out that the large percentage of the study's participants are men. However, it can be said that the distribution obtained in the research is in parallel with the ratio of female and male employees in the maritime business. It is seen that 59.1% of the maritime sector employees participating in the research are married, and most of them have worked in the relevant company for 1-10 years. Most of the respondents are university graduates with a rate of 75.6%. In addition, 30% are 26-33 years old, 30.5% are 34-41, 6.2% are 18-25 and 12.6% are more than 50. Most of the employees work in the operations department of the company, followed by the management, marketing and logistics departments, respectively. In statistical studies, data should be normal or close to normal. For this reason, descriptive analysis of normality was primarily applied to the data (Huang et al., 2004). The resultants are presented in Table 2.
In Table 2, it is observed that the skewness and kurtosis values, which confirm the normality of the data, are between -2 and +2. Therefore, it is possible to say that the data show a normal distribution (Byrne, 2016). Cronbach's alpha (CA), which measures the internal consistency of the scales, was at a normal value (Cortina, 1993). CA scores on the scale were greater than 0.70. The factor analysis showed significant a KMO value of 0.912, which was deemed excellent (Kaiser, 1974). The correlation between measurement items was satisfactory and convenient for factor analysis, according to Bartlett's test of sphericity (p = .000). Factor loads have exceeded the threshold value (Hair et al., 2010). The results are shown in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 2. Descriptive data
Variable Item Mean Std. dev. Skewness Kurtosis
Internal marketing IM1 3.85 1.037 -.859 .408
IM2 3.78 1.057 -.847 .186
IM3 3.73 1.209 -.776 -.312
IM4 3.61 1.087 -.418 -.565
IM5 3.79 1.073 -.789 .096
IM6 3.53 1.198 -.584 -.573
IM7 3.75 1.006 -.722 .033
Employee satisfaction ES1 4.15 .961 -1.211 1.269
ES2 4.15 .958 -1.181 1.208
ES3 3.55 1.214 -.563 -.536
Organizational performance perception ES4 4.07 .909 -1.035 1.094
OPP1 3.98 .939 -.815 .429
OPP2 4.12 .908 -1.031 .939
OPP3 4.08 .950 -1.023 .762
Table 3 displays the CA, composite reliability (CR), average variance explained (AVE), and correlation between variables. The AVE is a measure of a structure's convergent validity. CR stands for AVE and the square.
Table 3. Analysis of Cronbach's alpha and factor loadings
Variable Question Factor loadings Eigenvalue Cumulative variance, % Cronbach's a
Internal marketing IM1 .729 6.968 49.775 .912
IM2 .803
IM3 .808
IM4 .640
IM5 .733
IM6 .796
IM7 .750
Employee satisfaction ES1 .823 1.582 61.077 .886
ES2 .861
ES3 .703
ES4 .836
Organizational performance perception OPP1 .741 1.391 71.014 .815
OPP2 .899
OPP3 .812
Kaiser — Meyer — Olkin test (KMO) Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
.912
Approx. x2 = 3176.636; df = 91; Sig. = .000
Table 4 indicates that CA, CR, AVE, and correlation between variables are all significant. The outcomes exceeded the specified threshold values (Hair et al., 2014). Within the scope of the research, a positive correlation between the variables of IM, ES, and OPP exists.
The most important aspect of Structural Equation Modeling is that it enables the reconnaissance of relationships between variables to take down the fault in the structural model. This method aids in the modeling of structures on an upper level. In this research, the general compatibility of SEM with the model and hypotheses was evaluated. In Figure 2 and Table 5, the structural model and fit indices related to the employees within the aim of the research are presented.
Table 4. Construct reliability and correlations
Variable Mean SD CA CR AVE IM ICS OPP
IM 3.720 .887 .912 .901 .568 1 .626* .446*
ES 3.980 .878 .886 .882 .653 1 .414*
OPP 4.058 .797 .815 .859 .672 1
Note: * — Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
ICSI ICS2 ICS3 ICS4
. .92
€H IM1 f Internal \
IM2 t \71 Satisfaction/ fe S3 / \ -jt P
IM3 ,71 jf OPP1
IM4 _7C ( internal \ /^naVJ M^inr, J :3a ÎPefftxrrianœH--* OPP2
J ^\PerœptiorV
IM5 ,7S / j OPP3
0H 1MB i
IM7
Figure 2. Structural model of the research
Table 5. Model fit indices
Fit indices p CMIN/DF RMSEA GFI CFI NFI IFI TLI RFI
Model
0.000 3.023 .075 .915 .952 .931 .953 .941
.915
In Table 5, it is considered that the good fit values of the research model are at an acceptable level. The value (CMIN/DF = 3.023) is less than 5. The RMSEA value is 0.075. Also, other goodness of fit values is GFI = 0.915, CFI = 0.952, NFI = 0.931, IFI = 0.953, TLI = 0.941. It is considered that the research model suits well with the data (Hair et al., 2010). The research hypothesis test outcomes are shown in Tables 6, 7, and 8.
Table 6. Direct effect test findings
Hypothesis Direction Standardized effect Standard error p-value
H1 Organizational performance Perception internal <--- F . .. .463 marketing .052 .000
As can be seen in Table 7, internal marketing directly and positively affects the perception of organizational performance at 0.05 importance level. Therefore, H1 is confirmed.
Table 7. Mediation analysis result
Hypothesis Direction Standardized Standard effect Error P
Employee Satisfaction H2 Organizational Performance <--- <--- Internal Marketing Perception Employee Satisfaction .677 .059 .255 .059 .000 .001
Variables Standardized indirect effect Lower bounds Upper bounds Two tailed significances Mediation
Internal Marketing Organizational Performance Perception Employee Satisfaction (Mediator) .172 .041 .290 .015 Partial
Note: p < .05.
Results based on 2000 bootstrap samples mediation analysis in Table 7. It is determined that ES adopts a partial mediating role in the effect of IM on OPP. Therefore, the H2 hypothesis was accepted. The hypothesis created with the assumption that the work experience of the employees may have a moderator effect on the effect of IM on OPP has been tested. Table 8 and Figure 3 present the findin gs as following.
Table 8. Moderation test result
Hypothesis Variables Standardized effect t-value Standard error p-value
Internal marketing .450 9.507
H3 Experience -.69 -2.069 .38 .025
Internal marketing x Experience .106 .806
Note: p < 0.05; Boostrapt 5000 sample dependent variable: Organizational performance perception.
5,00-
Exp
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Q_ Q.
O 3,00E ri di
2,00-
1 ,00-
o.oo-1-1-1-1-
-1 ,00 ,00 1 ,00
IM
Figure 3. Graphical representation of the moderator effect
As it is observed in Table 8, the impact of working years' experience as a moderator on the effect of IM on OPP was found to be significant at the 0.05 level. Figure 3 emphasizes that employees with more work experience have higher perceptions of organizational performance compared to employees with less work experience. This means that as employees' work experience increases, the impact of IM activities on OPP is positively reflected. Therefore, hypothesis H3 was supported.
Discussion
In this current research, the relationship of IM, ES with OPP toward the company, mediator role of employee satisfaction, moderator role of work experience and perceived performance in one's job and psychological well-being, were analysed. Furthermore, employee satisfaction was considered as potential intervening mediating variable, and workplace experience as moderating variable that may shed light on the method that takes the lead from organizational performance perception to the outcomes mentioned above. Our research results corroborated our assumptions. According to data results which were gathered from 419 employees working in more than fifty different microfinance institutions, internal marketing and satisfaction of employee have a positive and significant relationship (Kanyurhi et al., 2016). IM and OPP have a positive and statistically substantial relationship (Kanyurhi et al.,2016). Another research that has been held on commercial banks' sector by Zaman et al. (2012). According to the results of IM strategies effect the banking sector's organizational performance perception. Widthwise, another study investigated internal marketing's impact on employees' OPP in an Asian hotel resort chain. The results have revealed that IM facts have a substantial and positive impact on OPP and employees' satisfaction (Ieong, Lam, 2016). As it is seen literature results are in line with our results in H1. Next, we hypothesized that employee satisfaction might act as a mediator in the connection between internal marketing and organizational performance perception. It was analysed the effect of perceived IM strategies on employee organizational performance and the role of empleyee satisfaction as a moderating factor (Ta§tan, Davoudi, 2020).
The results of structural equation modeling (SEM) analytics confirmed the positive influence of IM on ES and the positive influence of employee satisfaction on employee organizational performance. The analysis brought to light that perceived employee satisfaction is a absolute mediator between IM and EP. Furthermore, the researcher verified the positive relationship between IM and ES (Marques et al., 2018; Huang, Rundle-Thiele, 2014). As a result, the recent results imply that the higher the internal marketing sensation and satisfaction, the better the organizational performance and customer service. As per some study, survey has been collected by 300 employees of different service industries (Al Samman, Mohammed, 2020).
The resultants unveil that ES has a full mediating role on the direction of the relationship between IM and customer orientation such as job satisfaction and affective commitment. As it is observed that results in the literature are in line with our H2. Finally, work experience in the workplace was considered to have moderating effect which we predicted to moderate the relation between perceived organizational performance and internal marketing in our research. Limited previous studies have been found in the moderating effect of working years' experience.
In the study conducted by J. V. Puyod and P. Charoensukmongkol suggests that the level of employees' working years' experience moderates the contribution of cultural intelligence to communication participation and organizational productivity of call center customer representatives (Puyod, Charoensukmongkol, 2019). The results concerning the moderating effect of job experience, were in line with previous research, which has revealed that the advantages of cultural intelligence are dependent on contextual variables or individual characteristic features. It was investigated employee job satisfaction as a moderator of the effect of IM on performance of employees and corporate citizenship comportment (Ishaque, Shahzad, 2016). Based on the findings, a positive and worthy connection among IM and ES, EP, and organizational citizenship behavior; additionally, ES partly mediates the connection between IM and EP and organizational citizenship behavior.
Upon our investigation, this is the single paper in the maritime sector that considers employee satisfaction as a mediator in the relationship between IM and OP, working years' experience as a moderator in the relationship between IM and OPP.
Conclusion
Human resources relations in the maritime industry seems more challenging to handle since the nature of the shipping market is quite dynamic. The workload is huge and 24/7 online, thus the employee atmosphere is stressful. Due to harsh competition in maritime, stakeholders need to run after the trade with the fear of losing external customers. At this point particularly the importance of internal customers' merge. Shipping organizations have no credit to make qualified employees think "Should I stay, or Should I go?". This being the case, qualified manpower means a lot for the maritime organizations. They have no luxury to lose them since personal abilities of employees also step in while gaining external customers. To have a sustainable success in their market, to invest more, to increase the capital and to expand their service networks, they need to add new activities that increase employee loyalty to their in-house marketing strategies. For example, flexible working place and remote work practices, kindergarten for children of employees, double overtime wages, wellbeing workshops, (such as breathing meditation, etc.), hairdresser services can be applied.
Besides gender equality, diversity, inclusion, offering sports activities at breaks, the office cookoff, to give people a square deal, group work, employee wellness, company's interest in employees' wellbeing are other important factors to bear in mind. Thus, it is foreseen that these applications will directly increase the employee performance and loyalty. Investigating on shore-based employees may be the limitation of this study. In addition, in the future this study might be applied to seafarers or other maritime industry employees. Authors expect that this study will shed light on both researchers who study on similar subjects and organizations that would like to expand their horizon in terms of employee relations.
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Received 12.10.2022
Внутренний маркетинг и восприятие сотрудниками организационной эффективности в морской организации: роль посредника и модератора удовлетворенности и опыта работы
ШЕНБУРСА Нихан
0000-0001-5144-4240
ТЕХКИ Али
0000-0001-9949-2794
Университет Орду Фатса, Орду, Турция
Аннотация. Цель. Это исследование направлено на то, чтобы выявить взаимосвязь между восприятием организационной эффективности сотрудников в морском секторе экономики, удовлетворённостью сотрудников и внутренним маркетингом1. Дизайн исследования. Данные, полученные с помощью опроса 357 служащих турецкой судовладельческой компании, были протестированы с помощью моделирования структурными уравнениями с использованием статистического пакета SPSS 24.0 AMOS 21.0. Большой процент участников исследования составляют мужчины, однако можно сказать, что распределение, полученное в исследовании, соответствует соотношению женщин и мужчин в морском бизнесе. Большинство сотрудников работают в операционном отделе компании, затем следуют отделы управления, маркетинга и логистики соответственно. Выводы. В результате было определено, что внутренний маркетинг положительно влияет на восприятие сотрудниками организационной эффективности. Кроме того, удовлетворённость работой играет опосредующую роль во взаимосвязи между внутренним маркетингом и организационной эффективностью сотрудников, а опыт работы играет модерирующую роль во взаимосвязи между внутренним маркетингом и организационной эффективностью сотрудников. Ценность результатов. В будущем это исследование может быть применено к морякам или другим работникам морской отрасли. Авторы ожидают, что это исследование будет полезным как исследователей, изучающих сходные темы, так и руководителям, которые хотели бы расширить свой кругозор с точки зрения отношений с работниками.
Ключевые слова: удовлетворённость сотрудников; внутренний маркетинг; восприятие организационной эффективности; морские служащие; опыт работы.
1 Внутренний маркетинг — это «маркетинг организаций сферы услуг, используемый для эффективной мотивации сотруд-
ников, непосредственно контактирующих с клиентами...» (Ф. Котлер). Концептуальное определение внутреннего маркетинга, которое начали обсуждать в маркетинговой литературе в конце 1970-х гг., впервые использовал Л. Берри, который утверждал, что организации могут нанимать талантливых сотрудников, применяя те же маркетинговые усилия к своим внутренним клиентам, которые они использовали для умножения и удержания своих внешних клиентов (Berry, 1981). Сегодня это означает, что к персоналу следует относиться как к специфическим клиентам компании и обеспечивать их специфическим продуктом, который удовлетворял бы их потребности. Это подразумевает обращение к традиционным управляемым параметрам маркетингового комплекса «4Р» (продукт, цена, доведение продукта до покупателя и продвижение продукта). Открытым для произвольного толкования по сей день остается вопрос: «Что считать «продуктом» для своих сотрудников?». — Прим. ред.
