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HISTORICAL BREAKTHROUGH IN DEVELOPMENT OF CONSTRUCTION OF SKY SCRAPERS
Serdyuchenko V.
2st year student of the faculty of architecture and construction
Salfetnikov D.
candidate of historical sciences docent department of history and political science faculty offinance and credit FSBEI HE «Kuban SAU named after I.T. Trubilin»
Krasnodar, Russian Federation
Abstract
This article discusses the historical breakthroughs (inventions) associated with the construction of high-rise buildings. It was established that seven breakthroughs were made in the history of the construction of skyscrapers, without which it would be impossible for the highest building in the world to exist - the Burj-Khalifa, whose height is 828 meters.
Keywords: breakthrough, development history, invention, skyscraper, construction.
Dubai is growing faster than any other city on earth and is a place that the whole world admires.
Above the Sands of the Arabian Desert rises the highest (828 meters) structure created by man - the Burj Khalifa, which is the pinnacle of the art of building skyscrapers, and its success is due to seven fundamental breakthroughs.
Consider seven buildings-skyscrapers, each of which is based on an innovative solution that allowed engineers to take a new height each time. Looking at the construction of each skyscraper, you can see the incredible stories of their creation and learn about the invention that made each new building taller and more unique than the previous one.
To understand how the Burj Khalifa was able to reach such a great height, we need to go back in time and see how the history of building skyscrapers began.
The first breakthrough occurred in New York in 1873, when the Equitable Life Building was built with a height of only 43 meters. Its creators realized that before designing higher structures, it is necessary to find a way to make it easier for people to climb to the upper floors [1, p. 65]. Therefore, the first breakthrough was to move.
The first obstacle on the way to the skyscrapers was the stairs, as people were reluctant to walk up to
the upper floors. However, there was an obvious solution to this problem - the Elevator. The first elevators had one deadly drawback - they fell when the cable broke and nothing could stop them. Later in 1854, Vermont mechanic Elisha Graves Otis created a device that could almost instantly stop a falling cab. This is how the world's first fully automatic safe Elevator appeared.
In Burj Khalifa, the idea of an Elevator takes on extreme forms. If there were only seven and a half floors in Equal Life, there are already more than one hundred and sixty. The height and scale of the skyscraper demanded almost impossible things from the engineers who designed the elevators.
The Burj Khalifa can accommodate 35,000 people at a time. To cope with this huge flow, 53 elevators were designed, the largest of which can accommodate up to 46 passengers. Stopping such a structure in the event of an accident is a task of Titanic complexity. Therefore, as soon as the Elevator in Burj Khalifa exceeds the speed limit, powerful emergency brakes are activated, allowing it to stop a few meters away.
Safe elevators allowed buildings to overcome the five-story barrier. Skyscrapers turned out to be an unexpectedly promising direction. However, when the height of buildings began to approach 80 meters, the strength of traditional building materials was not
enough [2, p. 56]. To make the next leap to the Fuller Flatiron building in New York, skyscrapers had to be reinvented. The second breakthrough was the materials.
The 16-story Monadnock Building in Chicago, built in 1893, which was the largest office center in the world, is a clear example of the unsuccessful use of stones as a building material. To support the weight of the building, the base walls were almost two meters thick. The building was so heavy that it eventually began to sink into the soft ground of Chicago. It became obvious that stone is not the material from which you can build skyscrapers.
When the architect Daniel Burnham, who built Monadnock, started designing the Fuller Flatiron in New York, he found himself in a difficult position, since the allotted plot of land was very narrow, and because of this, the 22-story skyscraper had to have a triangular base. Burnham knew that there would be too little room for the stonewalls, and they would be so thick that there would be no room at all on the first floor. The Fuller Flatiron Building is based on one of the most important inventions in the entire history of architecture, which is the use of a single steel frame consisting of steel supports and beams [3, p.99]. Steel is much stronger than stone, so the frame can be thin and still hold the weight of the entire structure. To protect the interior of the building from wind, moisture, cold, and heat, Burnham hung thin brick walls like curtains on the outside of the steel frame. The building was immediately recognized as a success.
The steel frame was a big step in the history of skyscrapers, leading to a new generation of buildings.
The frame of the Burj Khalifa combines all the best that can be in steel and stone. Its construction includes more than 30 thousand tons of steel embedded in concrete. Reinforced in this way, the concrete backbone of the building is clad in high-tech walls-curtains made of glass and metal. The walls are attached to the frame of the Burj Khalifa in sections up to two stories high. The wall panels are rigid and the joints between them are movable, allowing each section to expand and contract under the hot desert sun.
When designing the 39-story UN headquarters building in New York in 1947, the architects wanted the walls of the building to be completely glass. However, such walls let in sunlight, most of which is absorbed by objects inside the building, which subsequently radiate heat into the surrounding air, and thereby heating it. Therefore, in order for glass skyscrapers to function, an artificial cooling system was required. American engineer Willis carrier solved this problem by creating an air conditioner that can cool, dry, heat and humidity the air with water. With the advent of air conditioning, it became possible to build skyscrapers with huge floor areas, as even the deepest interior spaces became workable.
Air conditioners have made it possible to build skyscrapers in the hottest places on the planet, in particular, in Dubai, where the temperature in the shade easily reaches 40 0C, and the average humidity is 90 %, which is an extreme condition for the existence of skyscrapers.
Air conditioning was not enough to protect the Burj Khalifa from the harsh desert sun. For additional protection, it was necessary to use not ordinary glass, but glass panels that were covered with a layer of metal on the outside to reflect the UV rays of the sun, and on the inside, a thin layer of silver to protect against infrared rays. More than 30,000 such panels were used.
There is the following problem-with increasing height, the time of building a skyscraper is catastrophi-cally extended. To reach the height of the building at 417 meters, the world trade center engineers had to invent a new, much faster method of construction. Therefore, the fourth breakthrough was the speed.
During the construction of the World Trade Center in New York, engineers are faced with the problem of time. Every day of unfinished construction was very expensive for them, so they had to figure out how to reduce the construction time to a minimum. It was decided to make blocks in other places in advance, bring them in at the right time, and assemble towers from them.
However, how to lift a block weighing 50 tons to where it should be, fast enough. To do this, a tower crane was found in Australia, nicknamed "kangaroo Crane", capable of lifting 50 tons. Thanks to pre-made blocks and a tower crane, the builders were able to build two floors in a week, so the twin towers began to grow rapidly.
The tower crane was also the best solution for the Burj Khalifa. However, here the process of making blocks was taken to a new level.
The key to the speed of work was a new technology called "jumping mold filling", in which the production of blocks began at the very bottom, where they collected the frame and cells that serve as the basis for the interstory floors and walls of the Burj Khalifa. Cranes lifted the cages and placed them in special jumping forms filled with concrete. 12 hours later, after the concrete solidified, the molds were ready for another jump. With the help of hydraulic devices, the forms were lifted, and the concrete block remained in place. In 2 hours, the forms were moved to the next level, where everything started again.
Thus, the Burj Khalifa was laid out like a pyramid of blocks, which were immediately filled in. However, as the tower grew, it became more difficult to get the concrete up. In order to pump 25 tons of concrete (so much was placed in one pipe) to a huge height, a pump with a capacity of 630 HP was required. The system worked flawlessly and a new floor of the Burj Khalifa grew every 3 days.
However, as they rose higher and higher, the skyscrapers became vulnerable to a new enemy - the wind. The fifth breakthrough was wind resistance.
In 1970, architects developing the design of the new 442 - meter building of the Sears Tower head office in Chicago faced the problem that the building of this height is subjected to the strongest wind loads. The Creator of the Sears tower invented a technology that made it possible to cope with the wind. The frame was moved outside, and the building acquired an external
skeleton that made Sears rock solid. The external skeleton has become the best solution in the field of light resistance.
Because the Burj Khalifa was twice the height of the Sears tower, the external skeleton could not withstand the wind effectively enough, so the architects resorted to aerodynamic solutions of the most advanced level. They moved away from flat and rectangular shapes and turned to more unpredictable ones. Sections of the tower were designed to deflect the wind in different directions. This allowed to destroy the power of eddies and prevent the wind from capturing the building.
Thanks to all of the above, the problems of moving people in the building, the weight of the structure, temperature and wind resistance were solved.
However, the worst enemy of all high - rise build-ings-earthquakes-constantly reminded of itself. The creators of the 509-meter skyscraper Taipei 101 in Taiwan made the sixth breakthrough related to the protection of buildings from this natural phenomenon.
To withstand high-frequency strong earthquakes in the Pacific ring of fire region, the Taipei 101 needed an element of elasticity. Therefore, its creators made it rigid where it was necessary and flexible where it was possible [4, p. 46]. To do this, 36 rigid steel pipes filled with concrete were placed in the center of the building, which provided the structure with strength. The rest of the structure was elastic, and it could bend and bend under the impact of the elements.
Burj Khalifa can withstand an earthquake with a magnitude of up to six on the Richter scale, thanks to its massive reinforced concrete frame. However, here the engineers faced another problem. To erect an ultrahigh building on the desert Sands, special approaches were needed. The rock under the Burj Khalifa is fragile and saturated with ground water, so any large well here immediately began to collapse [5, p. 97]. To avoid this, engineers filled wells with a viscous polymer resin that forced water and rock debris to the edges, leaving the center of the well free. Then poured concrete, which displaced the resin and solidified, forming Foundation piles. 200 piles, with a diameter of almost 2 meters, forming a single system, still do not allow the building weighing half a million tons to go underground.
In just over 130 years, skyscrapers have managed to overcome all the forces of nature, thanks to human ingenuity. However, as they rose higher into the sky, the buildings became more vulnerable to a new enemy: terrorism. The latest technological breakthrough has guaranteed the safety of those who will be inside the world's highest skyscraper. The seventh breakthrough was the evacuation.
After the attack on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, many believed that the construction of new skyscrapers was over. This case has shown that evacuating all people who are in such a high building is a task of phenomenal complexity. The higher the building, the more people need to travel a longer distance before they are safe.
Burj Khalifa is fire-resistant, due to the fire resistance of its reinforced concrete backbone. Therefore, there are nine special rooms - fire shelters. They are protected by reinforced concrete and sheet fire-resistant
coatings, their walls are able to withstand the onslaught of fire for 2 hours. Each of these rooms is equipped with a special system that drops air into them through fireproof pipes. Sealed fireproof doors prevent smoke from entering. In fire shelters, people can take shelter from the fire until emergency services take control of the situation [6, p. 44]. These rooms are located approximately every 30 floors, which makes them relatively easy to access for everyone. Fire shelters are a radical solution to the problem. However, even the safest shelter in the world will not be useful if the path to it is cut off by smoke.
The technology implemented in Burj Khalifa helps to eliminate the smoke factor. The early warning system operates continuously around the clock. As soon as the smoke detector is activated, a system of powerful fans enters into action, pumping clean, cool air into the building through fireproof air ducts. Fresh air displaces smoke from stairwells, ensuring that escape routes are passable. This fire safety system meets the requirements of skyscrapers of the XXI century [7, p. 167].
When completed, the Burj Khalifa became the highest structure ever erected by man on the planet. Standing on the shoulders of former historical engineering wonders, the Burj Khalifa is now the world's greatest skyscraper, until someone builds an even bigger one.
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ПРИМЕНЕНИЕ МЕТОДИКИ МОДЕЛИРОВАНИЯ ИНДУКТОРОВ ДЛЯ ПРОЕКТИРОВАНИЯ
СЕРИИ ИНДУКЦИОННЫХ УСТРОЙСТВ
Тяпин А.А.
аспирант, ФГОУ ВО Сибирский федеральный университет, г. Красноярск, Россия
Кинев Е.С.
к.т.н., директор, ООО Тепловые электрические системы, г. Красноярск, Россия
APPLICATION OF THE INDUCTOR MODELING TECHNIQUE FOR DESIGNING A SERIES OF
INDUCTION DEVICES
Tyapin A.
Postgraduate student, Siberian Federal University
Kinev E.
Ph.D., director of Thermal Electrical Systems LLC
Аннотация
В статье рассмотрены особенности применения методики моделирования индукторов продольного магнитного поля для создания серии индукционных устройств. Средством моделирования служит программная среда, построенная на основе методов гибридного анализа. Моделирование выполняют по принципиальной схеме однофазной, двухфазной или трехфазной установки. Каждому классу устройств соответствует комплекс библиотечных моделей. В схемной модели учитывают компенсирующие устройства, вольтодобавочные трансформаторы, симметрирующее и иное оборудование. Электромагнитные связи обмоток и перенос мощности при искажении симметрии в моделях описывают с применением средств параметрического управления.
Abstract
The article discusses the features of the application of the method of modeling longitudinal magnetic field inductors to create a series of induction devices. The modeling tool is a software environment built on the basis of hybrid analysis methods. Simulation is performed according to the basic diagram of a single-phase, two-phase or three-phase installation. A set of library models corresponds to each class of devices. The circuit model takes into account compensating devices, booster transformers, balancing and other equipment. Electromagnetic connections of windings and power transfer with symmetry distortion in models are described using parametric control means.
Ключевые слова: индукционная система, электромагнитный индуктор, симметрирование нагрузки, электромагнитный режим, математическое моделирование.
Keywords: induction system, electromagnetic inductor, load balancing, electromagnetic mode, mathematical modeling.
Introduction. Induction complexes for heating aluminum before pressing are widely used in extrusion production [1]. The designs, circuitry of single-phase, two-phase and three-phase inductors, as well as the operating modes of the devices, can be very diverse. The calculation of asymmetric modes of induction heating installations, consisting of electromagnetic inductors, nonlinear transformer voltage regulators, adjustable capacitor banks, providing local resonances, is complex
[2]. General view of water-cooled induction heaters for extrusion of aluminum ingots is shown in Fig. 1. Three-phase inductors are rather long in design (Fig. 1, a). They are used for methodical heating [3]. Industrial inductors of periodic action (Fig. 1, b, c) are shorter. They are manufactured in single-phase and two-phase versions. Inductors for continuous heating of ferromagnetic materials can be of different lengths [4].
b
Figure: 1. General view of induction heaters
a
c
