GLOBAL TALENT MANAGEMENT: A VIEW BEYOND DEVELOPED MARKETS Текст научной статьи по специальности «Экономика и бизнес»

PoccmcKm xypHan MeHegxMeHTa 18 (3): 383-410 (2020)

Russian Management Journal 18 (3): 383-410 (2020)

GLOBAL TALENT MANAGEMENT: A VIEW BEYOND DEVELOPED MARKETS

L. V. SELIVANOVSKIKH

Graduate School of Management, St. Petersburg State University, Russia

This study aims to identify the main drivers, activity domains and outcomes of global talent management (GTM) in emerging market organizations. Through a structured keyword search and subsequent elimination of papers, 27 top peer-reviewed journal publications (out of 137 articles on talent management) are selected and thoroughly analyzed using mixed research techniques. Using VOSviewer software, I identify the four major clusters in GTM literature: TM in EMs, global talent mobility, TM in multinational corporations, and human resource management in a "global war for talent" context. I further conduct a structured content-analysis-based literature analysis and provide a much-needed overview of the underlying organization theories used in previous EM research to explain the GTM phenomenon. I additionally reveal the key GTM system components and determine the main demand-supply factors and outcomes of GTM implementation. Lastly, based on the study's findings and subsequent discussions, I offer insights into future research avenues.

Keywords: global talent management, emerging markets, structured literature review, bibliometric analysis, content analysis.

JEL: M540.

INTRODUCTION

Global talent management (GTM) is an interdisciplinary research area, which draws knowledge from a variety of management fields, including human resource management (HRM), international business, strategic management, and knowledge management. Despite the ongoing debate regarding its place within (primarily) the HRM literature [McDonnell et al., 2010], most scholars agree that a fundamental

understanding of an organization's efforts to attract, enable, develop and retain global talent can only be reached by developing a comprehensive approach to the study to GTM, specifically by providing clear definitions of the key concepts, explicitly identifying the conceptual boundaries, and determining the underlying theories that explain core TM processes. According to [Collings, 2014], the main aim of GTM is to build a differentiated HR architecture that would facilitate the system-

Postal address: 3, Volkhovskiy per., Graduate School of Management, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, 199004, Russia. ©L. V. Selivanovskikh, 2020 https://doi.org/10.21638/spbu18.2020.305

atic identification, recruitment and positioning of highly qualified workers to gain and sustain a competitive advantage within and across regions, globally. The words "differentiated" and "globally" help to recognize the limitations of an overly simplistic perspective on talent investments and question the value of one single "optimal" HR system for the management of all employees, in all contexts and settings, at all levels [Collings, Mellahi, Cascio, 2019]. Considering the many challenges associated with talent attraction, development and retention of high potential workers within multiple national contexts as well as the prevalence of a North American focus in the literature [Beamond, Farndale, Hartel, 2016], the GTM phenomenon needs to be explored through the lens of particular country-specific environments.

Despite the "glocalization" tendencies in theory and practice, the macro context has often been underappreciated in GTM studies [Gallardo-Gallardo, Thunnissen, Scullion, 2019; Sparrow et al., 2018]. Of particular interest here are countries labelled as "emerging markets", which can be characterized by "...a high level of turbulence and complexity in a transformation process from centralized command and control political economies to market-oriented economies with varying degrees of state direction. " [Horwitz, 2013, p. 2436]. These country contexts have quite diverse economies, workplace relations based on cultural norms and traditions, peculiar socio-cultural and historical backgrounds that ultimately shape a volatile, complex, and ambiguous GTM environment. Taking into account the severe international competition and "global war for talent", local organizations are in constant search for additional sources of competitive advantage — for example, firms try to identify untapped talent sources, closely collaborate with "glocal" talent suppliers, adopt (and adapt, if necessary) innovative, yet effective and efficient management practices. The main issue, however, is that there is no one-fits-all solution when it comes to

the successful GTM implementation, especially in an EM setting. Scholars have been promoting contextualization for some time, stating that GTM needs to be analyzed in a specific socio-cultural context, that understanding cultural embeddedness would provide insight into why indigenous firms behave the way they do and how their behaviors affect the successes and failures in GTM. Nonetheless, the GTM field is developing unevenly: GTM as a practice remains somewhat of a "black box", with the antecedent-practice-consequence links as well as the underlying mechanisms behind these relationships not being thoroughly explored with regards to EMs.

This paper consequently considers the regional context of GTM activities in EMs and consolidates extant literature on the topic, providing an integrated overview of the underlying organization theories, drivers and outcomes of GTM, as well as the key elements of a GTM system. To guide the research process, I address the following research questions.

RQ1. How are GTM articles clustered? What research streams emerge? Which channels (journals, articles, authors, and institutions) are the most influential in research?

RQ2. How is the GTM literature developing within EM research? What is the main focus of key studies?

RQ3. What are the underlying organization theories explaining the GTM phenomenon in EMs?

RQ4. What are the key factors and drivers of GTM in EMs? What are the main issues discussed in context-focused literature?

RQ5. What are the key elements — e.g., strategies, activities, practices, praxes — of GTM of EM organizations? What are the expected outcomes of GTM implementation?

The remainder of the present paper is structured as follows: section one explains the research methodology adopted to investigate the research questions and develops an analytical framework that is further used in the analysis. Here, all the necessary in-

formation and details regarding the research protocol — steps, processes and applied procedures — are discussed. In the second section the main findings are presented: the state and foci of GTM literature are outlined, and the underlying organization theories explaining the GTM phenomenon in EMs as well as the core GTM system elements are presented. Lastly, the third section provides concluding remarks, limitations and future research directions.

1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In order to answer the research questions, I utilize quantitative and qualitative assessment of extant literature and follow a threefold methodological approach, consisting of bibliometric analysis, systematic literature review and content analysis methods (cf. [Apriliyanti, Alon, 2017; Crowley-Henry, O'Connor, Al Ariss, 2018; Massaro et al., 2016; Wiesmann et al., 2017]). In particular, I use the visualization software VOSviewer for bibliometric mapping, described by [Van Eck, Waltman, 2009], adopt and adapt the structured literature review (SLR) approaches, described in [Denyer, Tranfield, 2009; Massaro et al., 2016], and follow the process model for content analysis derived from [Mayring, 2008]. It is recognized that the aforementioned data collection and analysis processes are iterative in nature, requiring scholars to engage with each stage in a reflexive way. Below I present the methodological protocol — its role is to direct the inquiry and provide a reliable framework to ensure clarity, transparency, reproducibil-ity and robustness.

1. Define the research questions that the literature review is setting out to answer.

2. Carry out a comprehensive literature search and collect the data.

2.1. Identify broad topics to be included in the search.

2.2. Determine the type of studies (define unit of analysis) and test search strings.

2.3. Filter and categorize the obtained results (articles/sources).

2.4. Map articles/sources and assess their formal characteristics (e.g., impact, citations).

3. Define an analytical framework. Select structural dimensions and related analytic categories.

4. Review relevant articles/sources.

4.1. Read the articles/sources returned from the SLR.

4.2. Code data using the developed analytical framework.

5. Synthesize and critique relevant articles/ sources.

5.1. Develop insights through analyzing the data set according to the (analytic) dimensions.

5.2. Determine themes and gaps.

5.3. Develop future research paths. This section further describes the execution of steps 2.1-2.3 and 3. The results of Step 1 are provided in the introduction. Steps 2.4, 4 and 5 are discussed in the "Research findings" and "Discussion and conclusion" sections, along with the supporting content examples arising from the literature review and keyword analysis results.

1.1. Comprehensive literature search and data collection

The article search and selection processes are similar to those applied by [Massaro et al., 2016; Wiesmann et al., 2017]. The search focused exclusively on peer-reviewed academic journal papers, written in English and from the fields of business, management and accounting. Papers written in other languages or with different foci (such as social sciences, engineering, computer science, medicine, environmental science) were excluded. These and other delimitations can be found in Table 1. Meanwhile, the data collection was carried out on October 30 2019 as a structured keyword search — the broad topics of "talent management" or "global talent management" — in the title, abstract or keywords of the major database

Scopus. The choice of this database was based on the overall content size, scope and content relevance of publications in business and management as well as the ease of use and presence of a variety of sorting, ranking and refining features. The original search query produced 1 840 documents (articles, reviews, notes, editorials, conference papers, erratums, surveys; in any language) from over 486 journals. Using a number of different journal rank indicators, such as the Scimago Journal Rank indicator (SJR) (first quartile journals were considered) and the Australian Business Deans Council (ABDC)

ranking for 2017 (A* and A level journals were considered) as well as the Academic Journal Guide (AJG) of the Chartered Association of Business Schools for 2018 (journals rated 4*, 4 or 3 were considered), I identified seventeen journals that reported on relevant TM topics.

Table 2 presents the literature search results: selected journals and their rankings, average number of citations per document, number of papers. This step excluded 1 591 papers. An additional manual search conducted for the years the selected journals were not available in Scopus (from the year

Table 1

Delimitations used in the article search and selection processes

Delimitation Search query

Initial search (1 840 documents) (TITLE-ABS-KEY (talent AND management) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (global AND talent AND management)) AND (LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, "j")) AND (LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, "BUSI"))

Final search (249 documents): • Field: business, management and accounting; • Time: no time delimitations; • Search areas: title, abstract, keywords; • Document type: article, article in press, reviews; • Source type: peer-reviewed journal; • Language: English (TITLE-ABS-KEY (talent AND management) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (global AND talent AND management)) AND (LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, "j")) AND (LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, "BUSI")) AND (LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, International Journal of Human Resource Management) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Journal of World Business) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Human Resource Management Review) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Human Resource Management) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Journal of Management) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Human Resource Management Journal) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Strategic Management Journal) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Journal of International Management) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Management Science) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, International Business Review) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, MIT Sloan Management Review) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Academy of Management Perspectives) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Journal of Accounting And Economics) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Journal of Finance) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Journal of International Business Studies) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Journal of Management Studies) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Journal of Business Ethics) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Journal of Organizational Behavior) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Public Management Review) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Public Administration Review) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTSRCTITLE, Journal of Vocational Behavior)) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, "English")) AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, "ar") OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, "re") OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, "Undefined"))

Criteria for journals (1) Academic Journal Guide (AJG) of the Chartered Association of Business Schools for 2018: journals rated 4*, 4 or 3 considered; (2) Scimago Journal Rank indicator: first quartile journals considered; (3) Australian Business Deans Council (ABDC) ranking for 2017: A* and A level journals considered

of inception to the year prior to the journal's first appearance in Scopus) did not reveal additional relevant papers.

As a result, 249 scientific works were produced (articles, articles in press and reports were considered), including 20 papers published in journals such as Strategic Management Journal (10), Management Science (3), Academy of Management Perspectives (4), Journal of Management Studies (2) and Public Administration Review (1) (these five journals are not presented in Table 2 as all 20 publications are off-topic and focus on unrelated-to-TM issues). After excluding commentaries, responses to articles, interviews and introduction articles for special issues from the final list, a sample of 219 articles was obtained. Needless to say, some of these 219 publications, from a TM perspective, were irrelevant for the topic at hand, despite all seventeen journals having reported on TM-related topics. Relevance of a particular paper was determined during the initial screening stage: abstracts were read to identify

whether the paper discussed topics related to TM (in general), GTM and/or TM in EMs. Consequently, the sample was cut down to 137 articles, all of which focused on a relevant TM-related issue: challenges and drivers of TM implementation, TM practices and initiatives, peculiarities of managing particular talent groups, etc.

Meanwhile, papers with a separate focus on GTM-related topics, such as multilevel TM approaches in multinational corporations (MNCs), translation of TM strategies from HQs to subsidiaries, expatriation/in-patriation management, etc., were set apart from the rest. All in all, 48 papers were identified, excluding those that did not explicitly focus on the global-level issues and challenges associated with TM implementation (e.g., those with samples consisting of internationally active firms or those that mention GTM implicitly). Finally, 27 out of the 137 articles were found to specifically focus on EMs. However, just as in the case of the GTM literature, studies that did not

Fig. 1. VOSviewer visualization of a term co-occurrence network (focus on TM)

Notes: type of analysis: co-occurrence, the relatedness of items is determined based on the number of documents in which they occur together; counting method: fractional counting the

weight of a link is fractionalized.

Table 2

Citation indices for journals and details for articles selected

Journal ABDC AJG, 2018 SJR, 2017 Citations per document ABDC AJG, 2018 Number of papers TM GTM EM focus

International Journal of Human Resource Management A 3 0.94 2.30 1990 1990 62 (63) 41 17 9

Journal of World Business A 4 1.72 4.38 1997 1997 30 (31) 28 19 9

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management A 3 1.45 3.56 1989 1989 32 (33) 22 2 0

Human Resource Management Review A 3 1.68 3.88 1991 1991 24 (28) 16 4 0

Human Resource Management A* 4 1.31 2.85 1961 1961 23 (25) 7 1 2

Human Resource Management Journal A 4 1.16 2.95 1990 1990 9 8 0 2

Journal of Management A* 4* 6.46 8.03 1975 1975 9 2 1 0

Journal of Business Ethics A 3 1.28 2.91 1982 1982 9 2 0 1

International Business Review A 3 1.01 3.20 1993 1993 4 1 0 1

Journal of International Management A 3 1.43 3.37 1995 1998 4 2 1 1

MIT Sloan Management Review A 3 1.82 1.83 1959 2001 4 2 1 0

Journal of Accounting and Economics A* 4* 6.88 4.36 1979 1979 2 1 0 0

Journal of Finance A* 4* 18.3 6.81 1946 1946 2 1 1 1

Journal of International Business Studies A* 4* 5.20 7.27 1970 1996 2 1 1 0

Journal of Vocational Behavior A* 4 1.69 3.68 1971 1971 2 1 0 0

Public Management Review A 3 1.63 3.31 1999 2001 1 1 0 1

Journal of Organizational Behavior A* 4 3.15 5.06 1980 1981 1 1 0 0

TOTAL 219 (229) 137 48 27

Note: commentaries, responses to articles, interviews and introduction articles for special issues were not included in the final list of articles (the actual number of documents produced is indicated in brackets).

explore the context-specific peculiarities of TM and/or GTM (e.g., context-free papers with samples consisting of firms from EMs) were not considered in the final article-count.

1.2. Analytical framework

This study aims at investigating the GTM phenomenon in the context of EMs, for which I develop an analytical framework from the conceptual background to reveal existing theoretical patterns in literature and create a template for further pattern matching during the content analysis stage (cf. [King, 2012]). The list of prospective nodes (structural dimensions and related analytic categories) and framework/model elements are derived from the ten most highly cited papers in the GTM field (Table 3).

Here, I focus only on context-free studies — five of them have been published in Journal of World Business in 2010 as part of a special issue on GTM.

The node list (provided in Fig. 2) was further tested by the author, who independently coded the identified 27 articles. The nodes are: (1) type of analysis; (2) level of analysis; (3) context; (4) underlying organization theories; (5) factors affecting GTM; (6) relevant GTM system elements (e.g., mechanisms, processes, practices, activities); and (7) outcomes of GTM implementation. During the second screening stage, involving the reading of the entire papers, it became apparent that the issues and topics addressed in GTM studies with an EM focus were much broader (in breadth and depth), due to this subfield being cross-pollinated by thoughts and ideas from in-

Table 3

Delimitations used in the article search and selection processes

# Focus Author Source title Cited

1 GTM [Tarique, Schuler, 2010] Journal of World Business 307

2 GTM [Farndale, Scullion, Sparrow, 2010] Journal of World Business 245

3 GTM [Beechler, Woodward, 2009] Journal of International Management 236

4 GTM [Stahl et al., 2012] MIT Sloan Management Review 168

5 GTM [Schuler, Jackson, Tarique, 2011] Journal of World Business 160

6 GTM [Mellahi, Collings, 2010] Journal of World Business 157

7 Both [Iles, Chuai, Preece, 2010] Journal of World Business 149

8 GTM [McDonnell et al., 2010] Journal of World Business 110

9 Both [Hartmann, Feisel, Schober, 2010] Journal of World Business 104

10 GTM [Mäkelä, Björkman, Ehrnrooth, 2010] Journal of World Business 103

11 EM [Tymon, Stumpf, Doh, 2010] Journal of World Business 100

12 GTM [Meyskens et al., 2009] International Journal of Human Resource Management 87

13 EM [Cooke, Saini, Wang, 2014] Journal of World Business 81

14 GTM [Collings, 2014] Journal of World Business 81

Note: commentaries, responses to articles, interviews and introduction articles for special issues were not included in the final list of articles.

r N\

GTM system elements

Alignment with strategy, consistency, flexibility, cultural embeddedness, balance of local and global needs

♦ Talent attraction (employer branding and firm reputation)

♦ Talent identification and selection (considering different sources / types of talent)

♦ Talent staffing and recruitment

♦ Talent positioning and placement

♦ Talent development (horizontal / vertical; internal / external)

♦ Talent planning and succession

♦ Talent mobilization (international assignments, ex/re/ inpatriation)

♦ Talent evaluation (talent review, performance assessment)

♦ Talent motivation and empowerment

♦ Talent inclusion and involvement (diversity management)

♦ Talent retention (compensation, remuneration, rewards)

♦ Talent management (top management leadership, management involvement)

Underlying organization theories

♦ Agency theory: understanding the interactions between / motivations of different GTM stakeholders

♦ Bounded rationality theory: explaining the decisions made regarding GTM (successes and failures)

♦ Human capital theory: defining talent in terms of capital a firm should invest in

♦ Institutional theory: viewing the external challenges as legitimate forces that need balancing to gain access to resources for the development of appropriate GTM activities

♦ Social capital theory: considering talent as a boundary-spanner and a knowledge broker

♦ Resource-based view: examining the characteristics of talented workers; they possess different skills that vary in terms of their impact on firm competitive advantage

♦ Transaction cost economics: making GTM-related investments, understanding the actual costs of success

Exogenous vs endogenous factors

♦ Supply factors: Globalization of professional labor markets (shared talent pools), cross-border flows of people and organizations (new forms of international mobility, enhanced talent circulation), growing workforce diversity, demographic and economic trends (regional / global)

♦ Demand factors: Global competition, shortage and scarcity of global talent - individuals with valuable (context-specific) knowledge, competences, skills and motivation

Micro-, meso-, macro level outcomes

♦ Motivation and satisfaction (of all stakeholders)

♦ Performance and productivity

♦ Effectiveness and efficiency

♦ Competitive advantage, competitiveness

♦ Survival and success

♦ Sustainable development and 'smart' growth

♦ Increased access to (new) valuable resources

♦ Development and retention of (existing) valuable resources (including, human capital and knowledge)

Fig. 2. Analytical framework Note: based on 10 most cited GTM articles.

ternational business, international management, labor economics, entrepreneurship, supply chain, and marketing scholarly work. It was for this reason I decided to split the analysis of context-free papers and context-focused GTM articles into two parts by

considering one research question aimed at exploring the main clusters, research streams and distribution channels in GTM literature (RQ1), and the other concentrating on the analysis of EM studies and their key foci (RQ2).

2. RESEARCH FINDINGS

2.1. Main distribution channels, emerging research streams and themes in extant literature

This subsection aims to answer the questions: "How are GTM articles clustered? What research streams emerge? Which channels (journals, articles, authors, and institutions) are the most influential in research?" More precisely, it explores the top leading authors

and institutions, as well as the countries they represent. The top articles (e.g., [Tarique, Schuler, 2010] that develops an integrative framework of GTM in MNEs) and journal outlets (e.g., Journal of World Business with the most cited papers and International Journal of Human Resource Management with the highest publication output) have been presented in Tables 2 and 3 in the previous section.

This part of the analysis reveals the three leading countries with over 15 publications on key GTM topics: The United Kingdom (UK), the United States (US) and Ireland

Fig. 3. Distribution of publications by countries

» 5

N^ Or <</ .

f ./' / </ ^ P <t* .c9 $

/ </

25

3

4

a 3

o 2

3

Fig. 4. Distribution of publications by author

Fig. 5. Distribution of publications by author affiliation

Fig. 6. Distribution of publications by context

(Fig. 3). Logically, the top researchers in the field represent these countries (Fig. 4): for example, H. Scullion, D. G. Collings and A. McDonnell are professors at Ireland-based institutions (NUI Galway, Dublin City University and University College Cork, respectively); E. Farndale, R. S. Schuler and I. Tarique are US-based professors at the Pennsylvania State University, Rutgers University and Pace University (respectively); P. Iles, D. Preece and P. Sparrow are at the UK's Glasgow Caledonian University, University of Northampton and Lancaster University (respectively). Professors A. Al Ariss and I. Bjorkman fall out of this pattern and represent France (Toulouse Business School, University of Toulouse) and Finland (Aalto University). Similarly, the overwhelming majority of universities are Ireland-, UK- or US-based, with few exceptions like Tilburg University of the Netherlands.

2.2. Foci of context-focused GTM studies

Further, I investigate how the GTM literature is developing within EM research, specifically what the main foci of key studies

are — main regions of research, focus topics and keywords. First, the distribution of the chosen articles' research contexts is explored (Fig. 6).

The analysis of the studies' geographic emphasis shows that most papers have a general EM focus, with China, India and Russia being the primary representatives of the region. This means the analyses are conducted at regional level and the theoretical and practical implications are presented for the EM cluster rather than specific countries. Most authors advocate con-textualization, promote thorough in-depth context-focused investigations and contend that blind adoption and imitation of Western "best" practices is not the way to go, though attempts at generalization (at regional level) are still being made, mostly for theoretical contribution and practical implication purposes. EMs are indeed similar in a way that they have experienced (and some are continuing to experience) institutional transformations and economic opening, rapid development and catching-up growth. They have intermediate levels of per capita income and less mature capital markets in comparison to more advanced markets [Sparrow et al., 2018]. However, their economies and political infrastructures are rather diverse.

Cluster 3: TM in Multinational Corporations (MNCs)

talent deptificatlon

multinational corporations

global mobility

expatriation

global talent jTiarsgement

Cluster 2: Global talent mobility issues

humaitcapltal

talent pooÍ5

Cluster 1: TM in EMs, .(In. .non-Western contexts)' ■

india.

talent management

emerging markets

Cluster 4: HRM in a-'"global war for /talent" context

w<

human resource management

Fig. 7. VOSviewer visualization of a term co-occurrence network (focus on GTM and/or EM)

Notes: type of analysis: co-occurrence, the relatedness of items is determined based on the number of documents in which they occur together; counting method: fractional counting the

weight of a link is fractionalized.

These factors, along with the cultural, social and historical peculiarities, significantly affect the legitimation and implementation of GTM in different contexts. Therefore, when it comes to EMs there is much to be learned and explored — GTM is still at an early stage of development, it is an immature, nascent field. The accumulated experience (lessons learned) can and should be considered by scholars, policy-makers and practitioners from different countries. Consequently, I support and promote the crossvergence argument [Al Ariss, Sidani, 2016], which states the importance of finding a balance between global integration and local responsiveness, considering both converging (i.e. those that follow the global trends) vs diverging management practices (i.e. those that consider and adapt to the peculiarities and specificity of the local environment).

Second, in order to detect the trending research topics and reveal the knowledge structure of the GTM field domain, a co-oc-

currence network based on the articles' keywords is created. Using VOSviewer, I identify the 14 most frequently occurring keywords and classify them into four different clusters/focus topics: TM in non-Western contexts, specifically in EMs (cluster 1); issues in global talent mobility (cluster 2); TM in MNCs (cluster 3); and HRM in a "global war for talent" context (cluster 4). Cluster 1 includes five items, in particular "China", "emerging markets", "India", "Russia", and "talent management". Cluster 2 consists of four items: "expatriation", "global mobility", "GTM", and "human capital". Cluster 3 comprises three items, specifically "multinational corporations", "talent identification", and "talent pools". Finally, cluster 4 includes two: "HRM" and "war for talent" (Fig. 7).

Interestingly, this classification reflects the different ways GTM can be understood, perceived and interpreted by scholars and practitioners. For instance, the word "global" could imply the "migration" of TM practices

from one country context to another, their further transformation in a new environment (under new conditions and pressures), their subsequent cross-border movement and adoption/adaption/implementation by local organizations; ultimately, their convergence. The word "global" could also be part of the phrases "global talent" or "global management", both of which assume the increased mobilization of highly qualified workers with international human capital (not location- or firm-specific) and the increased number of

organizations conducting their business internationally. In the latter case, one would need a firm grasp of the local culture, customs, professional life, regional policies and social practices. From a GTM perspective, this would also mean attracting and recruiting boundary-spanning internationally competent talent [Furusawa, Brewster, 2015] as well as employees familiar with different institutional structures and cultural peculiarities [Hartmann, Feisel, Schober, 2010]. Finally, "global" could come from the word

Table 4

Overview of selected GTM/EM articles

Study (non-exhaustive list) Type Level of analysis1 Underlying organization theories2 Context GTM focus3 (based on the identified clusters)

TM in EMs (non-Western contexts) Global talent mobility TM in MNCs HRM in a "global war for talent" context

[Beamond, Farndale, Härtel, 2016] Theoretical: Proposition paper [ORG] SUB CHQ REG Resource-based view Institutional theory EM • •

[Cooke, Saini, Wang, 2014] Empirical: Quantitative ORG CNT Contingency approach [Institutional theory] China India [EM] • •

[Doh, Stumpf, Tymon, 2011] Empirical: Quantitative IDV [ORG] Stakeholder theory India • •

[Furusawa, Brewster, 2015] Empirical: Quantitative [IDV] [ORG] SUB CHQ CNT [Competence-based strategic management theory] Brazil Japan O • • O

[Giannetti, Liao, Yu, 2015] Empirical: Quantitative GVT CNT REG [Eclectic theory of international production] China EM O •

[Glaister et al., 2018] Empirical: Quantitative ORG REG Resource-based view Dynamic capabilities [Social capital theory] [Turkey] EM • •

[Hartmann, Feisel, Schober, 2010] Empirical: Quantitative [ORG] SUB [CHQ] CNT Institutional theory Resource-based view [Psychological contract theory] China [EM] • • O

[Horwitz, 2011] Theoretical: Proposition paper ORG GVT REG Institutional theory [Social capital theory] CEE region O • •

Table 4 (continued)

Study (non-exhaustive list) Type Level of analy-sis1 Underlying organization theories2 Context GTM focus3 (based on the identified clusters)

TM in EMs (non-Western contexts) Global talent mobility TM in MNCs HRM in a "global war for talent" context

[Horwitz, 2013] Theoretical: Proposition paper GVT CNT Institutional theory South Africa • O •

[Iles, Chuai, Preece, 2010] Empirical: Quantitative ORG CNT [Social capital theory] China • • O

[Kulkarni, Scullion, 2015] Empirical: Qualitative ORG GVT [Status inconsistency theory] [Stakeholder theory] India [EM] • •

[Latukha, 2015] Empirical: Mixed ORG CNT [Contingency approach] [Institutional theory] Russia [EM] • O

[Latukha, Veselova, 2019] Empirical: Quantitative ORG CNT REG [Knowledge-based view] [Contingency approach] Russia China EM •

[Li, Scullion, 2010] Theoretical: Concept development IDV CHQ REG Knowledge-based view [Social capital theory] [China] EM O •

[Meyer, Xin, 2018] Theoretical: Proposition paper (Research questions) SUB CHQ REG Institutional theory [Eclectic theory of international production] [Dynamic capabilities] [Knowledge-based view] [China] EM • • •

[Muratbekova-Touron, Kabalina, Festing, 2018] Empirical: Qualitative IDV ORG CNT Institutional theory [Contingency approach] Russia [EM] • O

[Poocharoen, Lee, 2013] Empirical: Qualitative [ORG] IND GVT CNT [Human capital theory] [Contingency approach] [Institutional theory] Singapore Malaysia Thailand Public sector • •

[Preece, Iles, Chuai, 2011] Empirical: Qualitative ORG CNT Institutional theory China • • •

[Preece, Iles, Jones, 2013] Empirical: Qualitative SUB CHQ REG [Institutional theory] [Agency theory] [Japan] [US] [Europe] Asia Pacific • •

[Raman et al., 2013] Empirical: Qualitative GRP ORG IND CNT [Social capital theory] [Upper echelons theory] IT sector India • o

[Sidani, Al Ariss, 2014] Empirical: Qualitative [ORG] [GVT] REG Institutional theory Strategic balance theory Arab Gulf region [EM] • O o

Table 4 (end)

Study (non-exhaustive list) Type Level of analysis1 Underlying organization theories2 Context GTM focus3 (based on the identified clusters)

TM in EMs (non-Western contexts) Global talent mobility TM in MNCs HRM in a "global war for talent" context

[Skuza, Scullion, McDonnell, 2013] Empirical: Mixed ORG CNT REG [Dynamic capabilities] [Human capital theory] Poland CEE region [EM] • •

[Stokes et al., 2016] Empirical: Qualitative ORG REG [Agency theory] [Behavioral theory of the firm] [Institutional theory] [Resource dependence theory] [Germany] [China] EM • • O •

[Tatli, Vassilopoulou, Özbilgin, 2013] Theoretical: Position paper, Literature review IDV ORG GVT REG [Strategic choice theory] [Status inconsistency theory] [China] [Singapore] [Thailand] [Hong Kong] [Taiwan] Asia Pacific •

[Tatoglu, Glaister, Demirbag, 2016] Empirical: Quantitative [SUB] ORG CNT [REG] Institutional theory Resource-based view [Social capital theory] [Human capital theory] Turkey EM • •

[Tymon, Stumpf, Doh, 2010] Empirical: Quantitative IDV ORG CNT [Psychological contract theory] India [EM] • O

[Zhang et al., 2015] Empirical: Qualitative, Proposition paper SUB CNT REG [Agency theory] [Bounded rationality theory] China EM • • O

Notes: 1 the code for the Level of analysis column is: IDV — Individual, GRP — Group/Team, ORG — Organizational/Firm, SUB — Subsidiary (this level also includes acquired firms in the M&A process), CHQ — Corporate (HQ), IND — Industry, GVT — Government/State, CNT — Country, REG — Region. The global context (also, macro context) are not singled out separately, as all articles presented in the table study (explicitly or implicitly) particular TM issues at the global level (set by research design); 2 to properly identify the underlying organization theories, I refer to the study by [Hult, 2011], who defines the theory of the boundary-spanning marketing organization by providing insights from 25 organization theories. In square brackets I indicate the "implicitly" mentioned organization theories (i.e. authors do not refer to these directly, and/or do not focus on the contribution to these theories, even though they are essential and relevant to the discussion); 3(«) indicates a core focus; (o) indicates a peripheral focus.

"globalization": nowadays, all organizations to some extent operate on an international scale, with even small indigenous firms, with no foreign operations, competing for talent with the global corporate giants.

Lastly, the 27 sample articles are differentiated according to the presented classification. All of the studies — by research design — have a core or peripheral focus on TM in EMs (i.e. they are part of cluster 1).

Five articles primarily investigate cross-border movements of talented workers (plus two study talent migration issues indirectly); eleven scientific works thoroughly explore the challenges of managing talent in MNCs (for another five this is not the main research aim); and nine papers look into HRM from a global talent war perspective (an additional five have this as a secondary focus).

2.3. Underlying organization theories explaining the GTM phenomenon in EMs

The GTM literature has drawn upon a range of organization theories and disciplines.

Underlying organization theories

Depending on the level of analysis and context-specific HR and talent-related challenges that various actors encounter (inter alia, potential and current employees, corporate and subsidiary managers, policy-makers, and others), scholars have used different organization theories to explain the formation and development of the GTM field (theoretical lens) as well as understand the processes of GTM legitimation in/by EM organizations (practical lens). Based on the conducted structured literature review, 24 organization theories have been identified (Tables 4 and 5). Nineteen of these theories have been mentioned either explicitly (i.e. the authors based and built their literature reviews, results and discussions around a theory) or "implicitly"

Table 5

t explain the GTM phenomenon

Theory View on GTM

Institutional theory Focuses on the importance of recognizing institutional structures in EMs for effective implementation of GTM practices and explains the differences in GTM approaches of local firms and subsidiaries of MNCs and the peculiarities of GTM in EM contexts, which often have high levels of institutional social embeddedness. Explains the behavior of organizations in external host-country environments by defining different isomorphic mechanisms — locally-specific normative standards and routines; coercive external power sources, and mimetic adoption of patterns in response to uncertainties — that challenge the translation of GTM practices within and across organizational and geographic borders and enhance a firm's legitimacy in the eyes of potential talent and improve efficiency in the competition for global talent. In EMs, mimetic and normative isomorphism play an important role in the way GTM practices are adopted, adapted and implemented by local and foreign firms (the former, as a rule, mimic and follow the latter). Recognizes the importance of recruiting talented individuals based on cultural fit with the recruiting organization. Explains the inertia of GTM systems of EM firms; highlights that change occurs when local organizations understand the potential benefits of implementing specific GTM practices.

Social capital theory Considers talented individuals as boundary-spanners and knowledge transfer agents who need social capital to generate connections across borders. Social capital allows both, local and foreign firms, to bridge the gap between globalization and localization of strategic HR practices. Views GTM as a necessary activity that helps leverage resources, increases absorptive capacity, protects knowledge and talent investments, and establishes a supportive organizational culture by reducing perceptions of environmental complexity via the creation of strong social ties, increasing access to best practices and global knowledge, and, consequently, improving TM decision-making processes. Recognizes the importance of networks, teamwork, social support, trust and relationships, transformational leadership, and organizational culture in giving direction and creating opportunities for global talent. Relational capital is especially beneficial in high risk and uncertain EM environments as it promotes knowledge sharing, cooperation and collaboration across the global value chain.

398 L. V. Selivanovskikh

Table 5 (continued)

Theory View on GTM

Contingency approach Describes GTM in a more nuanced way and with greater sensitivity toward local institutions and cultural traditions, as well as organizational diversities — rejecting the notion of a one best way of doing things in all contexts — explains why a particularistic approach (vs. a universalist approach) to conceptualizing and operationalizing talent and TM may be more appropriate to suit specific organizational needs in the view of firms' operational environment. Explains why and how the lack of competencies (e.g., low priority given leadership training) significantly limits the ability of HR specialists to use of effective GTM practices.

Resource-based view Explains the reasons behind some firms (MNCs vs local firms) showing higher organizational performance through the differentiation of employees. To obtain and sustain competitive advantages, more successful firms invest in those workers who can create substantial contributions to organizational success. Defines talented individuals as valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable (socially complex and causally ambiguous) resources that help outperform global competitors. Recognizes the importance of designing a GTM system that effectively creates, captures, leverages and protects the value derived from global talent resources.

Dynamic capabilities Describe GTM as a dynamic capability through which an organization senses, seizes, and changes its talent resources and competencies to obtain and sustain a competitive advantage at a global level. Views GTM as a transmission mechanism that mediates the HRM-performance link. Recognizes the need to develop an adequate global talent resource base. Dynamic capabilities in EMs yield superior benefits as they tend to be rare and can confer more value in volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous environments.

Knowledge-based view Helps determine the effectiveness of talent decisions and GTM practices from the perspective of absorptive capacity development. Knowledge is regarded as the most strategically significant organizational asset that needs to be effectively and efficiently acquired, assimilated, transformed, and exploited in order to reach desirable organizational outcomes. Recognizes the importance of identifying factors that promote participation and engagement in knowledge sharing and utilization — e.g., expatriates can develop location-specific skills and competences as well as manage global knowledge resources effectively only when local knowledge holders are willing to share valuable knowledge with them.

Agency theory Explores the GTM issues associated with goal in-congruence between different global actors involved in TM-related decision-making processes. Recognizes the additional challenges for top talent identification in multinational firms due to the tendency of subsidiary managers to act in their own interests and hide their talented workers from the HQ.

Human capital Defines what global talent is in terms of (intangible) capital in which organizations can and should invest, distinguishes between different global talent groups and helps determine optimal HR and talent portfolio configurations. Costs related to global talent attraction, development and retention can be viewed as investments in an organization's location- and firm-specific human capital.

Stakeholder theory Views talented workers as the primary stakeholder, which benefits multiple stakeholders when building and sustaining globally successful businesses. Recognizes the role responsible leadership plays in retaining talented workers and improving their well-being.

Table 5 (continued)

Theory View on GTM

Eclectic theory of international production Centers on the advantages of GTM for EM organizations, such as comparative advantage, location- and firm-specific advantages of being in the right place at the right time, having the right people in the right positions; suggests gaining access to local and global talents who possess relevant foreign experience and knowledge of global trends and best practices. Recognizes the importance of creating different types of leadership teams (foreign vs home-based subsidiary teams consisting of talented workers with a global mindset) and developing talent in global career paths (traditional leaders, local, expatriate, inpatriate and third country national talents, foreign experts, diasporas). Stresses the importance of different firm characteristics, such as type of ownership, scope and complexity of operations, as well as corporate governance in successful GTM implementation.

Psychological contract theory Describes the nature of the relationship between organizations and their talented employees. These individuals are more likely to reciprocate with emotional engagement when they perceive that they are valued by their organization. Recognizes the importance of acknowledging the variety of needs of different global talent groups. Meeting talented individuals' needs as well as making future commitments to motivate them to put effort into their work is more likely to result in an engaged and productive workforce. Means paying greater attention to international assignments and self-initiated expatriation, which requires flexibility in GTM policy. Self-initiated expatriates are seen as a mean for local firms to form an international workforce (strong focus on the transactional and relational elements of the employment contract due to expatriates' increased reliance on organizational support as a result of higher risks and uncertainty they are expected to assume).

Status inconsistency theory Explores the nature of the relationship between different groups of talented individuals — recognizes conflicting ranks among daily activities could create conflict between two or more talented employees relative to their status traits (e.g., gender, race, religion, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc.). Explains the variability in perceptions of talented employees and importance of employing different GTM practices for different global talent groups — locals, expatriates, inpatriates, and third-country nationals.

Strategic balance theory Explains how EM organizations conform to localization rules to sustain legal legitimacy, but at the same time try to become more efficient through the implementation of differentiating "cross-verging" GTM techniques and adoption of multi-level HR systems. These actions consider the regional peculiarities along with the global drivers that ultimately enhance economic sustainability and reduce global competition.

Behavioral theory of the firm Holds that a firm should be viewed as consisting of a number of coalitions: smaller firms operate under the guidance of an entrepreneur, who makes key GTM-related decisions, whereas larger firms are coalitions of different groups of individuals and decision-makers, inter alia headquarter and subsidiary managers, high potential and performing workers, and talent suppliers. The role of top management is to achieve conflict resolution and avoid uncertainty within the confines of bounded rationality. Attempts to predict firm behavior with respect to price, output and resource allocation decisions. From a GTM perspective, these resources are global talents and the outputs are desirable GTM outcomes, such as enhanced firm performance and legitimacy; meanwhile, the potential resource constraints and uncertainties surrounding EM firms include a lack of high-quality labor supply and rapidly transforming dynamics.

400 L. V. Selivanovskikh

Table 5 (continued)

Theory View on GTM

Bounded rationality theory Explains the "satisficing" decision-making and sense-making mechanisms used by local organizations to manage global talent in the context of high uncertainty, limited access to information and biasness; explains the nature of GTM failures in both, foreign and local EM organizations.

Theory of competence-based strategic management Focuses on distinctive competences that make a particular EM organization thrive in a turbulent and competitive environment. From a GTM perspective, a competence is defined as the ability to sustain the coordinated deployment of talent resources in ways that helps the firm achieve its goals (creating and distributing value to key GTM stakeholders, inter alia high-potential/high-performing employees and top managers). These include, for instance, the capability of a firm to develop boundary-spanning competent talent and adopt differentiating (tailored) HR practices aimed at effectively managing different global talent groups.

Resource dependence theory Explains the dependence of one global actor involved in GTM on another actor due to the former's lack of control over critical talent resources — e.g., dependence of a subsidiary on the parent organization in shaping GTM policy, heavy reliance of an organization on the global knowledge, skills, and experience of its talented workers, who have the choice to leave the organization at any time to pursue better opportunities. Talented individuals are also dependent on the resources firms provide, which is why they often consider working for large international corporations, which possess more resources that could be invested in talent development.

Strategic choice theory Contends that policy-makers' and managers' decisions regarding GTM play a tremendous role in the success or failure of local organizations in the global marketplace, and in their efforts to leverage untapped HR potential, address global talent shortage and increased international mobility via education and employment policies (at state level) and strategic HR practices and initiatives (at firm level).

Upper echelons theory Posits that the strategic choices made by top managers regarding GTM depend on the personalized interpretations of the situations they face and are influenced by their global mindset — psychological and observable characteristics, their experiences, values, and backgrounds. These choices and decisions influence a firm's strategic direction and performance. In the context of GTM in EMs, this means executives have to be culturally aware and foresighted, possess knowledge of global management trends and best GTM practices.

Systems theory* Views GTM as a system of management practices aimed at attracting, developing and retaining high-potential and/or high-performing workers.

Theory of multima- rket competition* Focuses on inter-organizational competition for global and local talent resources — if the market domains of competing organizations, e.g. subsidiaries of MNCs and local firms in EMs, overlap in multiple geographic-product markets (domestic and/or international), the firms are engaged in multimarket competition. For example, some EM firms with state support could occupy a unique market position in an industry, making the organization more attractive to potential talented workers and therefore more internationally competitive.

Theory of the multinational enterprise* Suggests that the scope of internationally-oriented organizations rests in control mechanisms and explicit coordination of value-added processes, inter alia global talent attraction, development and retention. In particular, global talent and GTM are crucial for the success of organizations operating in turbulent EMs environments, and the focus of the internalization should be to exploit these firms' advantages more effectively and efficiently.

Table 5 (end)

Theory View on GTM

Transaction cost economics* Determines the implicit costs of implementing different TM practices — talented individuals who may be versatile in their expertise can realistically bring the market to bear in negotiating compensation terms.

Network Theory* Views the relationship between key GTM stakeholders (inter alia, talented individuals, recruiting organizations, global talent suppliers) as consisting of global actors, resource ties, and activity links. Global actors control the resources and perform GTM-related activities that link these resources to each other. From a network theory perspective, these resources can be marketing (as a mean to attract global talent), technology, financial and human capital (investments made in talent development and retention).

Note: * indicates organization theories that, according to the author, have also affected the development of GTM literature: though thin threads of these theories can been traced, I do not focus on these in the discussion.

in the manuscripts (i.e. though a particular organization theory was not an essential, crucial element of the article, the underlying theoretical assumptions were 'woven' into the manuscript's logic, arguments, and ideas; in other words, the authors did not refer to the theory directly). Table 5 provides a detailed overview of key theories from a context-focused GTM perspective.

2.4. Factors and drivers of GTM in EMs

As identified in the analysis of the top ten most cited context-free GTM articles and demonstrated in the analytical framework (Fig. 2), a variety of endogenous and exogenous factors affects GTM systems and their effectiveness. They often widen the talent demand-supply gap, which drives organizations to consider more strategic and creative managerial solutions to acquiring, transforming and utilizing available talent resources as a success/ survival scheme. In the case of EMs, the factors influencing the demand for talent are quite obvious: due to the rapidly changing employment context, severe international competition, and institutional pressures, local companies are often unable to meet corporate objectives and reach particular firm-level outcomes. This motivates them to actively engage

in TM, which in turn serves as a dynamic transmission mechanism [Glaister et al., 2018].

When it comes to the supply side, however, EM companies face two serious issues — low quantity and poor quality of local talent resources. The former is a direct consequence of the generally more volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous environment in EMs, which 'pushes' the best and brightest towards migration to more developed countries [Mao, Latukha, Selivanovskikh, 2020]. Scholars in particular emphasize factors, such as: (1) fierce foreign competition that "drains" the local talent pools [Hartmann, Feisel, Schober, 2010; Latukha, 2015; Sidani, Al Ariss, 2014]; (2) institutional turbulence and unstable economic and political structures of EMs [Horwitz, 2013; Li, Scullion, 2010; Meyer, Xin, 2018; Skuza, Scullion, McDonnell, 2013]; (3) historical legacy, deeply-rooted cultural patterns and traditions [Tatoglu, Glaister, Demirbag, 2016; Tymon, Stumpf, Doh, 2010; Zhang et al., 2015]; (4) social marginalization caused by existing stereotypes and biases towards different minority talent groups [Kulkarni, Scullion, 2015; Sidani, Al Ariss, 2014; Tatli, Vassilopoulou, Ozbilgin, 2013]. Meanwhile, the latter issue — low talent quality — is overwhelmingly the result of a flawed education system. According to pertinent literature, there is a serious mismatch between the skills acquired by young talents during their education and the ones required by em-

ployers [Iles, Chuai, Preece, 2010; Latukha, 2015; Muratbekova-Touron, Kabalina, Festing, 2018]. Authors also mention a lack of managerial and internationally experienced talents (i.e. highly qualified leaders with global mindsets), who could serve as the transmitters of global knowledge, experience and competence [Raman et al., 2013; Giannetti, Liao, Yu, 2015; Meyer, Xin, 2018]. Together with the lower level of involvement of top management in TM implementation [Latukha, Veselova, 2019] and generally more authoritarian and bureaucratic leadership styles [Holden, Vaiman, 2013; Zhang et al., 2015], this leads to decreased employee satisfaction and motivation to learn [Doh, Stumpf, Tymon, 2011]. Therefore, the quality of talent remains at a low/average level, with GTM becoming more of a fashion trend [Preece, Iles, Chuai, 2011].

2.5. Key elements and outcomes of GTM in EM organizations

The analytical framework, introduced in the Methods section (Fig. 2), generally distinguishes twelve GTM activity domains, in particular talent attraction, talent identification and selection, talent staffing and recruitment, talent positioning and placement, talent development, talent planning and succession, talent mobilization, talent evaluation, talent motivation and empowerment, talent inclusion and involvement, talent retention, and talent management. Meanwhile, the analysis of context-focused GTM studies reveals that practices aimed at attracting, evaluating, placing and positioning high potential workers are not extensively covered in EM literature. In particular, scholars overwhelmingly investigate the issues related to the development of internal and external HR flexibility to address the various talent supply-demand factors and deal with the political, economic, societal and cultural differences and peculiarities of the local environment. Authors also identify GTM as a multi-tier and multi-level system of "cross-verging" talent and HRM practices [Horwitz,

2011; Furusawa, Brewster, 2015; Glaister et al., 2018; Latukha, Veselova, 2019] that is capable of building "global" skills and competences [Tatoglu, Glaister, Demirbag, 2016], promotes equality, fairness, and transparency [Poocharoen, Lee, 2013] and recognizes the importance of social capital building through collaboration and partnerships [Raman et al., 2013].

When it comes to talent acquisition and external/internal talent pool creation, studies give special importance to the recognition and hiring of different talent groups: individuals with foreign experience to join top management teams and corporate boards of EM firms [Giannetti, Liao, Yu, 2015], internationally competent migrants [e.g., Furusawa, Brewster, 2015; Sidani, Al Ariss,

2014], regional nationals with skills in cross-regional coordination and ability to cope with complexity and global/regional integration [Preece, Iles, Jones, 2013], and highly qualified representatives of different minority groups [Kulkarni, Scullion,

2015]. Researchers additionally suggest considering gender quotas as part of the TM strategy to "leverage untapped female potential" [Tatli, Vassilopoulou, Ozbilgin, 2013]. This once again proves that EMs are experiencing a serious deficit of human capital and that they need to learn to identify talent among the local population and find ways to efficiently transfer and utilize knowledge "brought to the table' by foreign talent.

As for talent transformation, training, and skills' building, researchers highlight the importance of linking different organizations, public agencies and the private sector in their talent development efforts [Poocharoen, Lee, 2013]. Studies particularly stress the need for macro level HR interventions: improving the quality of teaching and learning, schooling and university education, and adopting an appropriate national skills' development plan, with new straightforward policies that would stimulate entrepreneurial development and learning [Horwitz, 2013]. Scholars also identify the need for bi-cultural competences' devel-

opment [Furusawa, Brewster, 2015], inter-functional mobility [Muratbekova-Touron, Kabalina, Festing, 2018], and awareness and risk management: for example, firms should consider the risks associated with accultur-isation-reacculturisation oscillation among expatriate, repatriate and inpatriate talent [Stokes et al., 2016]. This in turn shows that in order for EMs to build a large reservoir of highly qualified workers and be less dependent on the foreign labor market to supply local organizations with talent, different actors — central/local governments, higher educational institutions, MNCs, and indigenous firms — have to work together at sub-national and national levels to ensure that, at the very least, everyone is pulling in the same direction when it comes to human capital development. As for talent empowerment, inclusion and involvement, researchers pay special attention to organizational culture-building: cultivating appealing organizational values [Muratbekova-Touron, Kabalina, Festing, 2018] and creating a workplace culture that focuses on building loyalty, pride and commitment between employees and the organization [Hartmann, Feisel, Schober, 2010; Cooke, Saini, Wang, 2014]. Here, studies also distinguish government-level talent strategies. Following the global trends in egalitarianism, key policies and initiatives aim at including underutilized segments of society — proactive equality legislation, gender proofing of education and employment policies [Tatli, Vassilopoulou, Ozbilgin, 2013], state incentives and actions promoting socially responsible behavior [Tymon, Stumpf, Doh, 2010] are the most popular examples.

Finally, talent retention in EM firms is mostly concerned with overcoming the fix pay structures of bureaucracy and focusing on both, financial incentives and intrinsic rewards [Tymon, Stumpf, Doh, 2010; Po-ocharoen, Lee, 2013]. Here, the adoption of Western-like retention practices helps to facilitate the transition and shift from autocratic/bureaucratic leadership styles to more democratic, transformational ones. Studies

specifically stress the importance of providing managerial support to employees, implementing fair and inclusive practices and having a stakeholder culture that promotes ethical and socially responsible behaviors in the workplace [Tymon, Stumpf, Doh, 2010; Doh, Stumpf, Tymon, 2011]. The last point demonstrates that local managers might not be as engaged and involved in TM activities as required to ensure positive outcomes. Scholars contend that an HR departments' role has to shift towards a more strategic focus [Skuza, Scullion, McDonnell, 2013]. With top management being the ultimate decision-maker and resource allocator, a company's leaders have to be more involved in GTM and dedicate more time to managing and controlling the implementation of key GTM practices and initiatives.

Depending on the resource constraints and actors involved in GTM, the outcomes of GTM can be of different scale and scope. Though most scholars explore individualand firm-level outcomes, they do justify their studies (specifically, choice of context) by considering the potential macro-level benefits of GTM adoption and implementation for EM organizations. Besides the most "popular" meso-level GTM consequences addressed in pertinent research, such as firm performance, competitive advantage, and organizational success [Glaister et al., 2018; Latukha, 2015; Latukha and Veselova, 2019; Sidani, Al Ariss, 2014], authors have paid special attention to a variety of EM-relevant micro- and macro-level benefits. For example, some see GTM as a mean to increase organizational citizenship and address outward talent migration: the study conducted by [Cooke, Saini, Wang, 2014] talks about GTM's influence on individual attitudes and behaviors (morale, commitment, and motivation); the articles written by [Tymon, Stumpf, Doh, 2010; Doh, Stumpf, Tymon, 2011] explore GTM's role in (decreased) employee turnover and (increased) satisfaction with the organization; the research findings presented in [Tatli, Vassilopoulou, Ozbilgin, 2013] reveal GTM's impact on the transfor-

mation of "traditional" assumptions about different marginalized groups and practices of employment. Meanwhile, researchers also mention human capital retention, brain gain, job creation, and economic growth as key macro-level outcomes for EMs [Horwitz, 2013; Giannetti, Liao, Yu, 2015]. Field scholars, however, emphasize that the most important function of GTM is to gain social and economic legitimacy [Iles, Chuai, Preece, 2010; Sidani, Al Ariss, 2014; Beamond, Farndale, Härtel, 2016; Meyer, Xin, 2018].

3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

3.1. Implications for GTM and EM research

Implication 1. Cross-pollination of ideas across research fields and geographical borders. TM is a relatively "young" cross-disciplinary research field that draws upon the ideas from multiple disciplines and organization theories. Depending on a scholar's philosophical stance, primary research assumptions and approaches, along with the micro-, meso- and/or macro-level TM issues under investigation, organizational setting, context, and environmental conditions considered, the theoretical and methodological foundations of different studies vary significantly. There are lots of moving parts in the TM machine, and the cumulative results and findings obtained from pertinent literature are often inconclusive, incomplete, and (at times) inconsistent and contradicting. For example, there is still a lot of ambiguity about what GTM essentially is, not necessarily in terms of the key definitions and conceptualizations used, but rather in terms of the essence and meaning of GTM. Adding the EM layer makes the situation even trickier: with the myriad of external/internal factors and drivers affecting GTM, understanding which solutions are the most effective and efficient in the

context of EM organizations (and why) becomes incredibly difficult. When a theory does not "work" and properly explain the phenomenon, scholars complement it with another; when an adopted GTM strategy or practice does not yield the expected outcomes, the managers responsible for TM implementation modify it or adopt another. It seems that there is always a piece of the puzzle missing, no true understanding of what the constantly changing "big picture" is. In order to improve contextualized research and advance our knowledge of how "glocal" factors affect the occurrence, meaning and implementation of GTM, scholars and practitioners should learn to balance different approaches and perspectives. Specifically, theorists outside the business, management and accounting fields as well as practitioners should be part of the GTM conversation. EM researchers, in particular, should have more opportunities to share their views and thoughts about country-specific GTM systems — eminent scientists from the West often get more credit than the comparatively unknown local EM researchers. Giving locals a voice would help reduce this Matthew effect.

Implication 2. Need of a "bird's-eye view" on GTM. There are multiple actors involved in the recognition, legitimation and implementation of GTM in EMs, inter alia: (1) professional associations — the GTM fashion setters — that maintain control of the legitimate practice of an occupation and seek to further the interests of individuals engaged in that profession as well as the public interest; (2) MNCs — the primary GTM fashion followers — that aim to build successful and sustainable businesses in new locations; (3) local/central governments — they shape the GTM environment — that strive to ensure smart growth, high quality of life, and security for all citizens; (4) schools and universities — the global talent producers and suppliers — that make great efforts to prepare the best and brightest and meet industry talent demands; (5) "the industry" — the global talent "consumers" — that aim

to be successful and consistently achieve set business goals in highly competitive environments; and (6) talented individuals, who make every effort to reach self-actualization. When it comes to GTM, these actors are highly dependent on each other — if one actor pulls in a different direction, the others will have to rapidly adapt (like when EM firms begin to adopt more innovative talent attraction and retention strategies to beat foreign competition) and in some cases "pick up the slack" (like when local firms invest additional resources into talent development to compensate for the flaws and issues in tertiary education). It is the collaborative effort of these actors that ensures GTM systems run like clockwork and produce positive outcomes. Therefore, scholars and practitioners should take a step back, consider the bigger picture by closely exploring the various GTM-related interactions between the actors. This would help gain a clearer perspective on what GTM is essentially about and what it means for EMs.

Implication 3. Moving up the ladder of abstraction. Pertinent literature often emphasizes talent and talent-driven management practices as key sources of competitive advantage based on the straightforward assumption that both — individual talents with valuable, rare, hard to find, and difficult to replace knowledge and skills (people philosophy) as well as the dedicated set of advanced and sophisticated HR practices (practices philosophy) — almost invariably, dis-proportionally, contribute to various aspects of organizational performance. This conventional reasoning leaves much ambiguity in the understanding of the actual role and meaning of GTM for EM organizations. In particular, the underlying mechanisms of the effect of GTM on effectiveness and efficiency are not properly investigated. Specifically, it remains unclear how the peculiarities and specificity of different contexts and organizational settings (consider, for instance, EMs that continue to experience profound institutional transformations and brisk economic growth) shape a firm's HR and talent

architectures with respect to innovation capabilities. Considering talented workers are of different backgrounds and from different cultural and geographical contexts, management practices dealing with them are not, and should not be, the same either [Al Ariss, Sidani, 2016]. This results in divergent context-specific HRM systems that prove to be effective only under very specific conditions and circumstances. Consequently, comparing firms in their GTM endeavors as well as drawing the right conclusions on the basis of these comparisons are, to say the least, problematic. A possible solution to this issue is to move-up the ladder of abstraction and consider GTM from the dimension of formal processes: the acquisition, assimilation, transformation and exploitation of global talent resources [Latukha, Veselova, 2019; Zahra, George, 2002].

3.2. Limitations and future research directions

This study has several limitations. First, I focus exclusively on the Scopus database, and the journals considered in the review are among the most prestigious. The basic assumption is that articles published in toptier journals are of higher quality and importance, they are more influential than those published in lower-ranked journals. However, it is often the case that papers and journals do not get "discovered" and acknowledged until much later, despite their relevance and relative contribution. Moreover, the aforementioned top authors have actually published their works in lower-ranked journals. This indicates a strong bias toward a very small group of highly cited publications. Nevertheless, determining the boundaries of the research is a central step of the structured literature review methodology. I have specifically focused on A*, A, and B level journals due to these outlets' high publication standards (best in the fields of business, management and accounting). It is thus necessary for future

research to integrate articles from a variety of databases (such as Business Source Complete and ProQuest), consider a broader spectrum of disciplines, and conduct a replication study in a few years so as to capture the transformation and advancement of the field. In particular, scholars can investigate the differences in theoretical and conceptual approaches and research designs used in papers published in different categories of journals (well-established journals vs newcomers). It could turn out that journals with lower impact factors and quartile scores provide radically innovative topics and use data analysis techniques that have not yet been recognized by the scholarly community; at the same time, it could be the case that articles published in lower-ranked journals use well-known theories and methods and differ only in their sample and

unit of analysis choices. It would therefore be beneficial for future research to consider papers from double-blind peer-reviewed academic 2nd quartile journals and also include edited books as well as book chapters into the main sample. As a result, a comparative analysis of types of publications can be conducted. Second, literature review reliability has not been explicitly established (specifically, the Krippendorff's alpha inter-coder reliability test has not been conducted). The general recommendation is to have three (or more) researchers participating in the coding process: the third coder is used to resolve the coding differences that arise between the first two coders. For reliability and cross-pollination purposes, future SLR studies should consider involving more scholars, preferably from different fields and of diverse backgrounds.

REFERENCES

Al Ariss A., Sidani Y. 2016. Comparative international human resource management: Future research directions. Human Resource Management Review 26 (4): 352358.

Apriliyanti I. D., Alon I. 2017. Bibliometric analysis of absorptive capacity. International Business Review 26 (5): 896-907.

Beamond M. T., Farndale E., Härtel C. E. J. 2016. MNE translation of corporate talent management strategies to subsidiaries in emerging economies. Journal of World Business 51 (4): 499-510.

Beechler S., Woodward I. C. 2009. The global "war for talent". Journal of International Management 15 (3): 273-285.

Collings D. G. 2014. Integrating global mobility and global talent management: Exploring the challenges and strategic opportunities. Journal of World Business 49 (2): 253-261.

Collings D. G., Mellahi K., Cascio W. F. 2019. Global talent management and perfor-

mance in multinational enterprises: A multilevel perspective. Journal of Management 45 (2): 540-566.

Cooke F. L., Saini D. S., Wang J. 2014. Talent management in China and India: A comparison of management perceptions and human resource practices. Journal of World Business 49 (2): 225-235.

Crowley-Henry M., O'Connor E., Al Ariss A. 2018. Portrayal of skilled migrants' careers in business and management studies: A review of the literature and future research agenda. European Management Review 15 (3): 375-394.

Denyer D., Tranfield D. 2009. Producing a systematic review. The Sage Handbook of Organizational Research Methods, 671-689.

Doh J. P., Stumpf S. A., Tymon Jr. W. G. 2011. Responsible leadership helps retain talent in India. Journal of Business Ethics 98 (SUPPL.1): 85-100.

Farndale E., Scullion H., Sparrow P. 2010. The role of the corporate HR function in

global talent management. Journal of World Business 45 (2): 161-168.

Furusawa M., Brewster C. 2015. The bi-cul-tural option for global talent management: The Japanese/Brazilian Nikkeijin example. Journal of World Business 50 (1): 133-143.

Gallardo-Gallardo E., Thunnissen M., Scullion H. 2019. Talent management: Context matters. International Journal of Human Resource Management. Forthcoming.

Giannetti M., Liao G., Yu X. 2015. The brain gain of corporate boards: Evidence from China. Journal of Finance 70 (4): 16291682.

Glaister A. J., Karacay G., Demirbag M., Ta-toglu E. 2018. HRM and performance — The role of talent management as a transmission mechanism in an emerging market context. Human Resource Management Journal 28 (1): 148-166.

Hartmann E., Feisel E., Schober H. 2010. Talent management of western MNCs in China: Balancing global integration and local responsiveness. Journal of World Business 45 (2): 169-178.

Holden N., Vaiman V. 2013. Talent management in Russia: not so much war for talent as wariness of talent. Critical perspectives on International Business 9 (1-2): 129-146.

Horwitz F. M. 2011. Future HRM challenges for multinational firms in eastern and central Europe. Human Resource Management Journal 21 (4): 432-443.

Horwitz F. M. 2013. An analysis of skills development in a transitional economy: The case of the South African labor market. International Journal of Human Resource Management 24 (12): 2435-2451.

Hult G. T. M. 2011. Toward a theory of the boundary-spanning marketing organization and insights from 31 organization theories. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 39 (4): 509-536.

Iles P., Chuai X., Preece D. 2010. Talent management and HRM in multinational companies in Beijing: Definitions, differences and drivers. Journal of World Business 45 (2): 179-189.

King N. 2012. Doing template analysis. In G. Symon, E. Cassel (eds). Qualitative Organizational Research: Core Methods and Current Challenges, 426-450. London: Sage Publications.

Kulkarni M., Scullion H. 2015. Talent management activities of disability training and placement agencies in India. International Journal of Human Resource Management 26 (9): 1169-1181.

Latukha M. 2015. Talent management in Russian companies: Domestic challenges and international experience. International Journal of Human Resource Management 26 (8): 1051-1075.

Latukha M., Veselova A. 2019. Talent management, absorptive capacity, and firm performance: Does it work in China and Russia? Human Resource Management 58 (5); 503-519.

Li S., Scullion H. 2010. Developing the local competence of expatriate managers for emerging markets: A knowledge-based approach. Journal of World Business 45 (2): 190-196.

Massaro M., Handley K., Bagnoli C., Dumay J. 2016. Knowledge management in small and medium enterprises: a structured literature review. Journal of Knowledge Management 20 (2): 258-291.

Mayring P. 2008. Qualitative Inhaltanalyse — Grundlagen und Techniken (Qualitative Content Analysis), Beltz Verlag, Weinheim.

Mao Y., Latukha M., Selivanovskikh L. 2020. From brain drain to brain gain in emerging markets: Exploring the new agenda for global talent management in talent migration. European Journal of International Management. Forthcoming.

Mäkelä K., Björkman I., Ehrnrooth M. 2010. How do MNCs establish their talent pools? Influences on individuals' likelihood of being labeled as talent. Journal of World Business 45 (2): 134-142.

McDonnell A., Lamare R., Gunnigle P., Lavelle J. 2010. Developing tomorrow's leaders — Evidence of global talent management in multinational enterprises. Journal of World Business 45 (2): 150-160.

Mellahi K., Collings D. G. 2010. The barriers to effective global talent management: The example of corporate elites in MNEs. Journal of World Business 45 (2): 143149.

Meyer K. E., Xin K. R. 2018. Managing talent in emerging economy multinationals: Integrating strategic management and human resource management. International Journal of Human Resource Management 29 (11): 1827-1855.

Meyskens M., Von Glinow M. A., Werther Jr W. B., Clarke L. 2009. The paradox of international talent: Alternative forms of international assignments. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 20 (6): 1439-1450.

Muratbekova-Touron M., Kabalina V., Festing M. 2018. The phenomenon of young talent management in Russia — A context-embedded analysis. Human Resource Management 57 (2): 437-455.

Poocharoen O.-o., Lee C. 2013. Talent management in the public sector: A comparative study of Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand. Public Management Review 15 (8): 1185-1207.

Preece D., Iles P., Chuai X. 2011. Talent management and management fashion in Chinese enterprises: Exploring case studies in Beijing. International Journal of Human Resource Management 22 (16): 3413-3428.

Preece D., Iles P., Jones R. 2013. MNE regional head offices and their affiliates: Talent management practices and challenges in the Asia pacific. International Journal of Human Resource Management 24 (18): 3457-3477.

Raman R., Chadee D., Roxas B., Michailova S. 2013. Effects of partnership quality, talent management, and global mindset on performance of offshore IT service providers in India. Journal of International Management 19 (4): 333-346.

Schuler R. S., Jackson S. E., Tarique I. 2011. Global talent management and global talent challenges: Strategic opportunities for IHRM. Journal of World Business 46 (4): 506-516.

Sidani Y., Al Ariss A. 2014. Institutional and corporate drivers of global talent management: Evidence from the Arab Gulf region. Journal of World Business 49 (2): 215224.

Skuza A., Scullion H., McDonnell A. 2013. An analysis of the talent management challenges in a post-communist country: The case of Poland. International Journal of Human Resource Management 24 (3): 453-470.

Sparrow P., Vaiman V., Schuler R., Collings D. G. 2018. Introduction: Macro talent management in emerging and emergent markets: Foundations for a developing field. In: V. Vaiman, P. Sparrow, R. Schuler, D. G. Collings (eds). Macro Talent Management in Emerging and Emergent Markets. A Global Perspercive, 1-21. Routledge: N.Y.

Stahl G., Bjorkman I., Farndale E., Morris S. S., Paauwe J., Stiles P., Trevor J., Wright P. 2012. Six principles of effective global talent management. MIT Sloan Management Review 53 (2): 25-42.

Stokes P., Liu Y., Smith S., Leidner S., Moore N., Rowland C. 2016. Managing talent across advanced and emerging economies: HR issues and challenges in a Sino-German strategic collaboration. International Journal of Human Resource Management 27 (20): 2310-2338.

Tarique I., Schuler R. S. 2010. Global talent management: Literature review, integra-tive framework, and suggestions for further research. Journal of World Business 45 (2): 122-133.

Tatli A., Vassilopoulou J., Ozbilgin M. 2013. An unrequited affinity between talent shortages and untapped female potential: The relevance of gender quotas for talent management in high growth potential economies of the Asia Pacific region. International Business Review 22 (3): 539-553.

Tatoglu E., Glaister A. J., Demirbag M. 2016. Talent management motives and practices in an emerging market: A comparison between MNEs and local firms. Journal of World Business 51 (2): 278-293.

Tymon Jr. W. G., Stumpf S. A., Doh J. P. 2010. Exploring talent management in In-

dia: The neglected role of intrinsic rewards. Journal of World Business 45 (2): 109-121.

Van Eck N., Waltman L. 2009. Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping. Scientometrics 84 (2): 523-538.

Wiesmann B., Snoei J. R., Hilletofth P., Eriksson D. 2017. Drivers and barriers to reshoring: a literature review on offshor-ing in reverse. European Business Review 29 (1): 15-42.

Zahra S. A., George G. 2002. The net-enabled business innovation cycle and the evolution of dynamic capabilities. Information Systems Research 13 (2): 147-150.

Zhang J., Ahammad M. F., Tarba S., Cooper C. L., Glaister K. W., Wang J. 2015. The effect of leadership style on talent retention during merger and acquisition integration: Evidence from China. International Journal of Human Resource Management 26 (7): 1021-1050.

Initial Submission: February 27, 2020 Final Version Accepted: October 29, 2020

Глобальное управление талантливыми сотрудниками: опыт развивающихся рынков

Л. В. Селивановских

Институт «Высшая школа менеджмента», Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет, Россия

В статье рассмотрены практики глобального управления талантливыми сотрудниками, а также факторы, влияющие на их успешное внедрение в организациях на развивающихся рынках. Структурированный поиск по ключевым словам выявил 137 ведущих научных публикаций на тему управления талантами, в 27 из которых предметом исследования выступили контекстно-ориентированные управленческие практики и инициативы, направленные на привлечение, развитие и удержание высококвалифицированных кадров. Библиометрический анализ статей с помощью VOSviewer определил четыре ключевых направления исследований: управление талантливыми сотрудниками в странах с растущей экономикой; глобальная мобильность и миграция талантов; управление талантливыми сотрудниками в транснациональных корпорациях; управление человеческими ресурсами в контексте глобальной войны за таланты. Дальнейший контент-анализ публикаций выявил 24 теории организации, используемые исследователями для объяснения феномена глобального управления талантами в контексте развивающихся рынков. Рассмотрены основные компоненты системы глобального управления талантами, а также результаты внедрения ключевых процессов, инициатив и практик. На основе проведенного систематического обзора научных работ предложены новые направления исследований по рассматриваемой тематике.

Ключевые слова: глобальное управление талантливыми сотрудниками, развивающиеся рынки, систематический обзор литературы, библиометрический анализ, контент-анализ.

JEL: М540.

For citation: Selivanovskikh L. V. 2020. Global talent management: A view beyond developed markets. Russian Management Journal 18 (3): 383-410.

Статья поступила в редакцию 27 февраля 2020 г. Принята к публикации 29 октября 2020 г.