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"Islamovedenie", Makhachkala, 2014, № 3, pp. 30-35.
S. Novoselov,
Ph. D. (History), Associate Professor, Astrakhan State University FROM THE "FATHER OF ALL TURKMEN" TO "PATRONS" - WHAT HAS CHANGED?
Turkmenistan is the most closed country in the territory of the former Soviet Union since obtaining the status of the independent state. Leaders of Turkmenistan have developed an ideological basis for the self-isolation, proclaiming neutrality from the first days of the republic's sovereignty, and the United Nations confirmed it in 1995. Turkmenistan - is a country outside any blocks, coalitions, alliances, without friends and enemies. All major friends and enemies are inside the country and are determined by their relation to the president.
Turkmenistan is the unique state, which combines the features of socialism, eastern khanate and a modern state with the resource potential.
The nomenclature, led by Saparmurat Niyazov, has established not an authoritarian regime, but a classic totalitarian dictatorship of a personal type, a unique one in the former Soviet space. This dictatorship is inferior only to the DPRK Juche regime in control over the society.
A comprehensive studying of the causes of these changes in the political system of Turkmenistan is extremely difficult due to the closed nature of the country. Experts believe, that replacement of the Soviet
totalitarianism on a specific Turkmen one has been caused by a number of factors. The almost complete lack of democratic traditions, the scarcity and isolation of social groups, where the beginnings of the civil society could have arisen - all this is the result of an archaic way of the Turkmen society. Saparmurat Niyazov and his circle managed to maintain and strengthen the dominant position in the state and society, suppressing all potential rivals from other regional and clan groupings due to the high degree of consolidation of the ruling elite and personal qualities of Niyazov.
Totalitarian ideology has provided the monopoly and control over the society, the search for and elimination of any dissent. There is a continuous brainwashing of the population for the sacralization of authorities and mobilization of the community for the fulfillment of the tasks, established by the supreme authority.
Creation of the democratic constitutional state has been declared the main goal immediately after gaining the independence in the early years of Niyazov, which corresponded to the spirit of the times. The concept of the "Turkmen model" has been oriented towards a gradual transition from the Soviet system to democracy, and the state had to play the first and leading role in this process. Ideology, based on the local context, proclaimed the thesis of national classless society of a new type, having no analogues in the contemporary world.
The process of identification of Saparmurat Niyazov's personality with the supreme authority has passed quickly enough. December 1991 - The law on the protection of honor and dignity of the President, October 1993 - awarding the title "Father of all Turkmens" -"Turkmenbashi", January 1994 - a referendum to extend the powers of Turkmenbashi until 2002 and the abolition of the presidential elections in 1997, April 1994 - The introduction of the annual oath of loyalty to Turkmenbashi , December 1999 - The announcement
of Turkmenbashi as president for life. The cult of "Turkmenbashi" was materially embodied in the architectural and sculptural gigantism. It has also covered the president's family since the mid 1990. A number of organizational measures have been taken for the establishment of an absolute Saparmurat Niyazov's personality cult. In the early 1990s all the disgruntled officials were removed from their posts, all power structures were cleaned. Replacement of the heads of security agencies has been held annually. Threat to Saparmurat Niyazov's power was completely eliminated from this side.
The organization of power by clan affiliation in regions was a threat to "the ideological and political unity" of the Turkmen society. Saparmurat Niyazov began to appoint representatives of other clans to the regional power structures. A law was passed, that forbade collaboration of relatives or fellow countrymen belonging to the same tribe in the same state structure. Such a policy minimized the strengthening of regional elites.
The regime systematically destroyed environment of the national intelligentsia. The Academy of Sciences and the majority of departmental institutes were closed, almost all creative unions eliminated, massive cuts medical staff and teachers were carried out. All well-known writers, journalists, artists, architects, doctors, teachers were forced to leave the country. The rest were destined to serve the regime under the control of the ideologues of the Office of the President and the National Security Committee.
A few protest actions were stopped immediately. Public penances of dissenters were broadcast repeatedly on TV. Afterwards, any hint of opposition received an immediate response of the authorities - from the prohibition to leave the country and to the arrests, deprivation of property, dismissal relatives.
The transition to the Latin alphabet in 1995, and total de-Russification of the education system have resulted in a complete isolation of the young generation from the intellectual baggage of the USSR. Saparmurat Niyazov transferred schools in the 9-year education, higher education institutions - for 2-year-old in order to reduce the time and cost of training for the younger generation.
All media were unified, internet access was banned, broadcasting of foreign, primarily Russian, television channels were limited, foreign radio stations were silenced.
Religious policy is focused on obedience to the state. Sunni branch of Islam, professed by the absolute majority in Turkmenistan has never posed a threat to the authorities. However, Saparmurat Niyazov's personality cult was in need of a more robust ideological basis. Ethnic nationalism became its complementary components. The thesis of the exclusivity of the Turkmen people has become the main thing in the nationalist doctrine. Turkmenbashi himself was a historical researcher, writing "Rukhnama" - a monumental work, which began to study in schools and universities and in the media to quote. "Rukhnama" covers almost all aspects of life of the Turkmen people , and requires "correct" norms of behavior of the individual in all spheres of public and private life. Its concept is still religious in nature: some of its postulates have been borrowed from the Koran and are the basis for the approval of personal power of Turkmenbashi.
Huge revenues from gas exports allowed to provide Turkmen citizens with free gas, water, electricity and salt, encouraging them to adopt a new society. But it was a poor compensation for unemployment and low living standards, especially in rural areas.
The triumph of the cult of personality and nationalism put the non-titular mainly Russian-speaking population in a difficult position. In the very beginning, the Declaration of a state of law and national
equality inspired optimism in the national minorities. However, it turned out that the words of "one nation" meant general "Turkmenization" of the local society.
The sudden death of Turkmenbashi in 2006 and Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov's rise to power brought a modification of the regime and its ideology, but the Turkmen "thaw" was short-lived. The ruling elite staked on continuity in the state ideology for the sake of "peace in society" because it feared that any change would lead the country to ruin. Gurbanguly Berdymukhhamedov did not reconfigure the system of government. He spent the constant rotation in the upper echelons of power and the immediate environment, so that there were no groups, capable to arrange a coup.
Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov could not afford a sharp disassembly of the cult of Turkmenbashi in such conditions. It was necessary to create his own image, which would be different from the former leader in the favorable direction. The transformation took place in a strictly defined sequence: the image of the president-reformer, promising fundamental transformation, revered elders and ancestors, and denied the most grotesque features of the former regime at the same time, was introduced into the social consciousness .
Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov was sworn on the Koran and Rukhnama during the inauguration ceremony. The mention of Turkmenbashi as well as references to his teachings became the symbolic signal for the generation that grew up in the spirit of the ideology of the former president of Turkmenistan. The cult of "Rukhnama" was kept the first years of the new presidency, but the emphasis was placed on the book itself, but not on the personality of the former president. Since 2008, the regular reading of "Rukhnama" on television were stopped, its studying was the inclusion of the subject
"Social Studies" along with the works of Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov.
At the same time, the most odious ideological "innovations" of the first president were eliminated: the names of months, accepted throughout the world, were returned, the name of Turkmenbashi was replaced by the word "president" in the oath of loyalty, a 12-year course of study at the school and a 5-year in higher education were returned, the Academy of Sciences, opera, ballet, district hospitals were restored.
During 2007, Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov's ideologues worked on a new ideological doctrine, suggesting abandon a number of old dogmas and to strengthen the image of the new leader of the country. In January 2008, Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov gave a new ideological concept of "Epoch of the Great Revival." The President has identified a gradual transition to market relations as the main instrument to achieve these goals.
Incumbent President Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov received about 97% of the vote in the 2012 presidential election.
Until 2008, the ruling and the only political force was the Democratic Party, founded in 1991 by President Niyazov. President Berdymukhamedov has repeatedly pointed out the need to change the one-party system. Changes to the Constitution have been introduced, providing for the creation of new parties. In August 2012 the Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs was established by direct recommendation of the President, and therefore it can not be called an opposition one.
Alternative Majlis elections were held in Turkmenistan in December 2013. The right to nominate candidates was received by trade unions of Turkmenistan, the Women's Union, Youth Organization named after Makhtumkuli and initiative groups of citizens, in addition to the two official parties. Foreign observers
from the European Union, the CIS and the OSCE recognized the elections as competitive, transparent, open and ensured the free expression of the will of citizens.
The presence of several political organizations does not guarantee the existence of freedom and pluralism in a country where the opposition has no influence, and new political organizations and institutions of government are under the strict government control. All real opposition organizations have long driven out of Turkmenistan, or its members are in prison. Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov is the fifth of the world's 23 worst dictators on the version of "the Foreign Policy."
Nowadays, the replacement of Niyazov's personality cult by Berdymukhamedov's personality cult is one of the main objectives of the Turkmen ideologues. If the first president - Turkmenbashi Niyazov - considered the "father of the people", the new president is officially called Arkadag - "Patron". Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov writes books, like his predecessor - Niyazov. Attempts are made on canonization his family and ancestors. Portraits of the president in the frame of flowers and flags are placed everywhere. All citizens support and endorse the course of the president. They should think in this way and can not be different.
There is no independent media in Turkmenistan, all official reporters carefully select topics for articles, freelance correspondents of foreign publications are under supervision almost round the clock. The Turkmen society gets one-sided and embellished information for more than 20 years of existence of independent Turkmenistan.
The real socio-economic situation in Turkmenistan is poor. Lowering yields of grain, which causes a rise in prices for bread and leads to an increase in the cost of other products. Attempts of the authorities to streamline the implementation of the system of fuels and
lubricants have caused the opposite effect, and have provoked shortages and rising prices for food, fuel and consumer goods.
Social unemployment benefits are not paid practically as theTurkmen authorities have concealed the existence of this social phenomenon. The problems such as drug addiction, corruption, religious extremism are the basis for the concerns of the authorities as a threat to national security.
According to the UN Office for Drug Control, there are 400 drug addicts per 100 thousand population. The real figure is higher on order and it achieves almost 4000 people. There is no problems with finding drugs - border with Afghanistan is nearby. All kinds of drug trafficking routes are worked out through the whole country. Drug couriers cross the border of 800 km almost unhindered.
As for the problem of corruption, the organization "Transparency International" has put Turkmenistan onto 170 place out of 174 in its latest report.
Increased activity of various religious extremist organizations is another threat to the country. There are Islamist groups that have already begun underground work, as well as mass agitation among the population in Turkmenistan. However, according to experts, they will be a serious threat to the regime in 10-15 years - when the sufficient number of unemployed , and uneducated young people who easily fall under the influence of the latter-day spiritual mentors.
The political system of Turkmenistan is relatively stable due to the tribal division of society. The current head of Turkmenistan, Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov, is building the ethnocratic society. His policy is aimed to the elimination of all non-Turkmen diaspora in the country. Turkmen authorities see them as a "fifth column". In addition, Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov has a policy of "tribal nationalism" and divides all Turkmens in the "clean" and "dirty". This division
exacerbated the political situation in the country and caused a reduction in the economic performance.
Today, representatives of the Akhal-Teke clan stand on the top level of the national hierarchy. Tekke was the previous President Niyazov and ethnic Tekke is the current President Berdymukhamedov. Tekins control 3/4 top government posts and they are 90% of the security forces.
The growing discontent and distrust of the regime of Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov becomes clearly defined, although the Turkmen society is not ready to protest at the moment. These moods can acquire a mass character in the future, and the Turkmen opposition or other destructive forces will be able to use them to gain power in the country.
At the same time, the civil war in Tajikistan, the events in Kyrgyzstan, revolutions in the Middle East and Ukrainian coup will further strengthen the view of Turkmenistan leaders of the need to continue the isolationist policy.
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A. Khazanov,
D.Sc. (Hist.), Institute of Oriental Studies EASTERN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE LATE 20 -EARLY 21 CENTURIES
Global bi-polar structure of international relations gave way to unipolar after the "Cold War" and the collapse of the USSR. The United
