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Applied linguistics (UDC 8133)
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.18454/RULB.11.17 Рыкова О.В.
ORCID: 0000-0002-6461-9756, кандидат филологических наук, Челябинский государственный университет ДИНАМИКА МЕТАФОРИЧЕСКОГО МОДЕЛИРОВАНИЯ КОНЦЕПТА «ТЕРРОРИЗМ» В
МАССМЕДИЙНОМ ДИСКУРСЕ США
Аннотация
Актуальность работы определяется важностью для современного языкознания проблемы динамической изменчивости содержания концепта, потребностью в определении характера связи между концептом и дискурсом, выявлении зависимости содержания и средств вербализации концепта от типа и вида дискурса. Предмет исследования - динамические характеристики вербализации социально маркированного концепта в массмедийном дискурсе США. Цель исследования - установить динамику структурирования и экспликации знания о терроризме в массмедийном дискурсе. Для достижения поставленной цели в исследовании выдвигаются следующие задачи: установить корпус языковых единиц, вербализующих концепт «терроризм» в массмедийном дискурсе США; выявить динамику экспликации концепта «терроризм» в массмедийном дискурсе США на примере метафорического моделирования. Практическая значимость исследования состоит в возможности применения его основных положений и результатов в вузовском преподавании курсов общего языкознания, стилистики, лингвокультурологии, спецкурсов по когнитивной лингвистике, теории концептуальной метафоры, дискурсологии, а также в лексикографической практике.
Ключевые слова: метафорическое моделирование, динамика, массмедийный дискурс, терроризм.
Rykova O.V.
ORCID: 0000-0002-6461-9756, PhD in Philology, Chelyabinsk State University DYNAMICS OF METAPHORIC MODELLING OF THE CONCEPT OF TERRORISM IN AMERICAN MASS
MEDIA DISCOURSE
Abstract
The topicality of the research in modern linguistics is defined by the importance of studying the problem of the dynamic nature of the concept content, the need to define the connection type between the concept and discourse as well as to reveal the dependence of the concept content and verbalization means from the type of discourse. The subject of the research is dynamic properties of the verbalization of a socially marked concept in American mass media discourse. The aim is to define the dynamics of structuring and explicating the knowledge about terrorism in mass media discourse. To reach the aim the following tasks are set: to determine the corpus of linguistic units which serve as verbalizers of the concept of terrorism in American mass media discourse; to define the dynamics of the verbal representation of the concept of terrorism in American mass media discourse as exemplified by metaphoric modelling. The practical applicability of the research consists in the possibility of using its main points and results in such academic courses as general linguistics, stylistics, cultural linguistics, special courses in cognitive linguistics, theory of conceptual metaphor, discourse study and in lexicographic practice.
Keywords: metaphoric modelling, dynamics, mass media discourse, terrorism.
Почта авторов / Author Email: [email protected]
Introduction
Terrorism can be referred to supranational (global) concepts that have certain social and cultural significance and are dominant in people's mind at given periods of time. The functioning peculiarities of such concepts account for their unstable changeable content while a number of conceptual features remain permanent. The current research focuses on the verbal dynamics of the concept of terrorism in one of the fastest developing institutional discourse types — mass media discourse.
The study material is presented with a corpus of verbal representations of the concept of terrorism found in articles published in leading American periodicals since 1991 to the present time. The scientific merit of the research stems from its contribution to cognitive-discursive linguistic theory: the achieved results allow to further scientific insight in conceptualization peculiarities of any given reality fragment, in representation regularities and verbalization dynamics of one of the global concepts in modern information and cultural field.
Method
Alongside the general scientific methods of observation, analysis, synthesis, generalization and systematization the research relies on a range of modern linguistic methods and techniques: conceptual analysis method, component and textual analysis of linguistic units, modelling method.
Modelling method is one of the crucial methods for completing the main project tasks. Usual metaphorization is described by two-parameter semantic models including characteristics and directions which motivate the shift of naming, or the types of metaphorical shift. Analysis of a metaphoric model requires the description of the source sphere (donor zone) and target sphere (recipient zone), as well as their internal structure. A metaphoric model is constructed of frames which are descriptions of typed situation, frames consist of slots.
Discussion
Concept-generating abilities of discourse are determined by its nature: discourse usually develops around some generalized everyday notion, as a result a certain semantic context is created The latter includes information about the subjects of verbal thinking, objects, circumstances and spatiotemporal data. «Basic structural discourse elements are: (a) events, their participants, performative data and (b) nonevents (circumstances accompanying the events, background information, event evaluation, information correlating the discourse with the event)» [3, P. 203]. Thus, discourse represents an entire world.
Mass media has a unique ability to generate intense information and meaning flows and to control them. Being included in the process of producing meanings, images and metaphors as well as the process of producing mass
information (content), collective consciousness and mass audience, mass media exert rough influence over the nature of collective consciousness, its dominant intentions and peculiarities of its content forms.
The current research views mass media discourse as a fragment of cultural scene, collective consciousness and communication presented by modern mass media. Mass media discourse is deemed as «a process of reproducing and objectivizing in mass media socially dominant perception principles and interpreting devised meanings as well as a socially regulatory mechanism directing collective consciousness by means of creating and replicating in mass media socially relevant meanings and judgements» [8, P. 20].
From the point of view of cognitive semantics that is one of the leading research lines in modern linguistics, information about the surrounding reality is stored in shape of certain mental structures (knowledge patterns), also known as concepts, that are fragments of cultural (social) memory reflecting unique human experience of interaction with the world around and comprehending it. The role of a concept as «an operative content storage memory unit» is «explaining the psychic resources of our consciousness and the informational structure that reflects human knowledge and experience» [6, P. 90]. Concept feature space is formed as a result of comprehending one's diverse experience and reconstructed by means of construing meanings and interpreting speech contexts which reveal concept existence.
The history of any society has periods when one or the other cultural phenomenon due to a number of reasons gets particular significance and, consequently, extra semantic and language development. Due to that it reveals (or obtains) new features; this process leads to enrichment of the concept feature field and, thus, its nominative field, which can be defined as «a totality of language means representing a concept at a certain stage of social development» [9, P. 66].
An important concept feature that accounts for its significance is "nominative density" regarded as «detailing of the represented reality fragment, multiple variable nomination and complex shades of meaning of the denotata» [4, P. 112].
Mass media concept is focused on the current social context alongside the openness to time and space paradigms, but only to the extent which they can be requested by the present. A mass media concept combines social memory (history), current social context, accompanying ideology, relevant style as «language taste of the epoch» [5], social engineering and social forecasting and also the cultural experience of social reflection and experiencing. Mass media concept is «performed as a quick mass media technology of social perception and social-cognitive management (cognitive proponency and opponency) as well as a mechanism of semantic derivation - social consolidation of new lexeme meanings not typical for the linguistic world image, and semantic modulation (changing semantic or stylistic emotional nuances of a word)» [1, P.12].
The present stage of linguistic research is characterized by a great interest towards metaphor. The theory of conceptual metaphor first appeared in G. Lakoff and M. Johnson's work «Metaphors we live by» [7]. This theory postulated that metaphor is a language phenomenon that reflects the process of world perception. We employ the approach developed by the cognitive linguistics that treats metaphor as a part of everyday speech that affects the ways in which we perceive, think, and act. Reality itself is defined by metaphor, and as metaphors vary from culture to culture, so do the realities they define. There is an extensive, and mostly
unconscious, system of metaphors that we use automatically and unreflectively to understand complexities and abstractions.
To speak about metaphoric modelling specialists use such terms as «archetype» or «metaphoric archetype» [12], «conceptual metaphor», «basic metaphors» [7], «metaphoric model» [2], «regular polysemy theory» [11], «metaphoric field» [10], etc. Metaphoric model is made of frames that are descriptions of a typed situation. Frames consist of slots presenting some unity of data relevant for the described reality fragment. Apart from the structure, productivity and frequency as well as pragmatic potential should be drawn attention to when describing a metaphoric model.
Results
Within the scope of this research the concept of terrorism is described from the point of view of cognitive linguistics as a key concept of modern American mass media. It reflects the movement of dominant meanings and the nature of their representation in the context of collective consciousness changing under the influence of internal and external factors.
A characteristic feature of mass media texts is a great number of metaphoric images representing the concept of terrorism. The texts can be characterized by plurality of narrators and points of view, ethical, emotional and other kinds of appreciation, communicative strategies and tactics as well as moral principles. Let's examine metaphoric models and the constituent frames and slots that have been the most productive ones in American mass media discourse from 1991 up to the present time with an emphasis on their dynamic potential.
Anthropocentric metaphor is the leading - the most frequent and diverse - in American mass media discourse. It's quite anticipated since people tend to learn new phenomena by comparing them to the already known and understood, and nothing is studied and explored more that the human body, way of life, etc. Apart from the anthropocentric metaphor of terrorism the following models are clearly defined: "Terrorism is an animal", "Terrorism is a natural phenomenon", "Terrorism is a mechanism", "Terrorism is a sport", "Terrorism is a performance".
The subsphere "Human being" has given rise to a great number of political metaphors with the conceptual field "terrorism". It is without any doubt the basic one. Let's make an overview of the most productive frames and slots shaping this model.
Terrorism and terror being pitifully a part of modern life worldwide, are very often paralleled to human body and its separate parts, systems and organs. It refers to both terrorist organizations such as, for instance, Al-Qaeda, HAMAS, Hizballah, etc. and political leaders using terrorist methods for fighting their enemies.
The frame named «Human body» encompasses such slots as «Physiological organs and body parts», «Illness», «Conditions posing dangers for human body»:
«Perhaps the most unsettling possibility is that the hand behind the blast will never reveal itself and never be discovered by anyone else» ("Tower Terror"/ "Time", 08.03.1993).
«In any case, turning the U.S. into a police state in order to prevent terrorism would be not only morally repugnant but probably ineffective; in many countries dictatorial repression has bred, not stifled, terrorism» ("New York Post: The Terror Within"/ "Time", 05.07.1993).
Another quite productive frame is «Human work activities». Within this frame terrorist activity is metaphorically compared to a work flow the participants of
which should have certain qualifications. Terrorists just like "wage labourers" can have different status - of a permanent «employee» or an independent «contractor»:
«The new attackers are sometimes called free-lance terrorists, and some truly are» ('New York City: The Terror Within"/ "Time", 05.07.1993).
The images of natural disasters, destructive and frightening natural phenomena are used rather frequently as part of «Terrorism is a natural phenomenon» model. The war on terrorism is a suffocating fog, terrorist attacks are a horrifying hurricane, violence is a fearful and disorienting fog blanket. The given model comprises such frames as «Inanimate nature» (slots «Weather events», «Natural disasters»), «Landscape elements»:
«Peres also had praise for the PLO for its anti-terrorist efforts: "We have to encourage the winds of peace to retract the shadows of danger."» ("Clinton Signs Anti-Terrorism Accord"/ "Time", 30.04.1996).
Such phenomenon as terrorism can hardly leave anyone indifferent and performance as a source domain provides perfect conditions for implementing the emotive function of metaphor. The metaphoric model «Terrorist act is a spectator show» is presented with such frames and slots as «Performance as such», «Theatre performance», «Spectator sports»:
«In public and behind the scenes, the stakes are rising in the waiting game between terrorists and the law» ("Law Forces Make Quiet Countermoves Against Terrorism"/ "Time", 23.09.1999).
Military metaphor is also of key importance. It is one of the most productive and is presented with such frames as «War fighting tactics», «Combatants», «Battle outcome», «Army service», «Weapons»:
«But aren't intelligence agencies reluctant to expose such "assets," in a trial, which tends to render them useless in the ongoing battle with the terrorist organizations they'd come out of, or had infiltrated?» ("Why Trials Matter in the War Against Terrorism"/ "Time", 05.02.2001).
«Millionaire fugitive Osama bin Laden is the CEO of a far-flung "business" whose goal is a holy war to kill Americans, prosecutors said in closing arguments of the embassy-terror trial» ("Feds: Bin Laden CEO of terror inc."/ "New York Post", 02.05.2001).
Further, we are presenting the results of the metaphoric modelling of the terrorism concept for the period starting with 2001 and up to the present time.
The anthropocentric metaphor as well as the models «Terrorism is a natural phenomenon» and «Terrorism is a spectator show» continue to manifest powerful expansion potential. Thus, as it becomes crucial to identify people and organisations investing into terrorism, the slot "Donor" gains considerable currency:
«Unlike other major terrorist organizations such as al-Qaeda, which are primarily reliant on wealthy donors, ISIS gets most of its funding not from the illegal market sale of oil, as well as from ransoms and extortion» ["Time", "Treasury Department's Anti-Terrorism Chief Says Cutting Off ISIS Funds Of High Importance", 23.10.2014].
Hereafter we will focus on the models and their constituent frames and slots that previously hadn't been frequently used but gained currency after the events of September 11, 2001.
First of all, the increase of the zoomorphic metaphor frequency is noted. It is presented with the following frames and slots: «Animals and birds», «Predators», «Animal breeding and farming», «Fish», «Insects». Within the scope
of this model terrorists are made metaphorically equivalent to animals and their actions, and, consequently, are viewed as animal behaviour.
Politicians using war as the only way of dealing with conflicts are named "hawks". This name emphasizes their aggressive belligerent frame of mind and "predator" habits. Some terrorist leaders are labelled "spiders in the web" which points out such features as scheming and cruelty.
Due to the cruelty, destructive power, spontaneity and unpredictability of terrorist acts, terrorists are metaphorically compared to the animal world by means of using such verbs as "to hatch" and "to breed":
«The situation will breed a new generation of suicide bombers» ("The next wave"/ "Time", 24.06.2002.).
The metaphor given below was presented in a brief commentary to the article narrating about a successful campaign that resulted in the detention of a close ally of a terrorist leader. The former is called "a big fish". The function is to define leaders in the terrorist world:
«Al-Qaeda's elusive terrorists have to be captured one by one. The inside story of how a big fish got snared» ("Al-Qaeda now"/ "Time", 3.06.2002.).
The viewed period is characterized by actualization of the mechanistic metaphor including the following rather productive frames and constituent slots: «Mechanism», «Mechanism parts», «Mechanism disassembly», «Mechanism performance standards»:
«While still aiming to "defeat al-Qaeda," we're now trying only to "reverse the Taliban's momentum and deny it the ability to overthrow the government» ("Time", "Obama Shrinks the War on Terrorism", 07.12.2009).
If terrorism is a mechanism, the aim of the adverse party is to dismantle it, to turn it off, stop functioning. Within this context a terrorist is perceived as a component part, unit, a nut in a well-organized terrorist mechanism ("a nut in a terrorist machine").
Due to the American administration policy in the period from 2001 to 2009 aimed at supporting military campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq the US budget deficit continued to increase. Political opponents criticized the president for the unjustifiable expenses and the financial burden for the public coffers, especially the finances spent on military campaigns. That, in its turn, led to the increase in the potential of the metaphoric model «Terrorism is a business» which views terrorism as a company having «employees» with their «job duties» ("pool of employees"). The war on terrorism is paralleled to a financially unprofitable enterprise:
«Obama's effort to downsize the war on terrorism is partly a function of personality and mostly a function of circumstance» ["Time", "Obama Shrinks the War on Terrorism", 07.12.2009].
«It is also important to consider that the argument that terrorists are often middle class and well educated because terrorist groups are capable of selecting their preferred operatives from a large pool of recruits depends on the context» ["Time", "Don't Dismiss Poverty's Role in Terrorism Yet", 04.02.2015].
It is to be noted that the frequency of the military metaphor has dropped. It can be explained by the policy of the state and the attitude of the citizens to the initiated and long-running military campaign in Iraq. It is common knowledge that a considerable part of the country population criticized the presidential decision to start the war in Iraq, there were a series of protests. Probably due to the negative public response to the US policies journalists purposefully
avoid military images in connection with terrorism in order to reduce, or at least not to trigger, excess tension.
Generally, we may note the tendency to focus on the causes - mostly those of social and educational nature - of terrorist activity in modern society. Journalists try to uncover the motives behind this phenomenon by analyzing the factors such as poverty, mental illnesses, etc. contributing to the increase in the frequency and scale of terrorist activity.
Conclusion
Mass media discourse being not very conservative, contacting everyday and poetic discourse actively prefers the frame format of terrorism knowledge. Frame allows to reflect in its content the evaluations, judgements and points of view of different personalities. It finally leads to the expansion of the concept discursive representations and broadening its content scope.
The dynamics of the structure and the content of the concept of terrorism depends on the political events in the world and are brought about by the changes in the nature and methods applied by criminals for terrorist attacks. Mass media discourse is quite sensitive to such changes. This sensibility manifests itself in fast growth of certain lexical units and functioning of various metaphors.
The research of the concept of terrorism in US mass media discourse allows to discover the vectors of the spiritual insight of the modern society into the given notion. Terrorism is considered to be one of the most significant and dynamic concepts in US modern worldview. The indications of the accuracy of this statement are multiple cognitive features of the concept alongside its high nominative density.
Список литературы / References
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DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.18454/RULB.11.15 Рябцева Н.К.
ORCID: 0000-0002-2042-4615, доктор филологических наук, Институт языкознания Российской академии наук СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ ЦИФРОВЫЕ ТЕХНОЛОГИИ И ИННОВАЦИИ В ИНТЕЛЛЕКТУАЛЬНОЙ СФЕРЕ
ЧЕЛОВЕКА
Аннотация
Современные цифровые технологии не только "изменяют язык" (Дэвид Кристалл), но и оказывают влияние на интеллектуальную сферу человека, побуждая его совершать множество не свойственных для него ранее операций. В данной статье рассматриваются наиболее существенные инновации в интеллекте человека, которые порождаются новыми информационными технологиями. Эти инновации включают, по мнению ведущих специалистов в области современных компьютерных технологий, такие операции, как многозадачность, "серендипность ", коннективность, гипермодальность, визуальность и киберсемиотическая конвергентность объективной и виртуальной реальности. Статья основана на исследованиях, в первую очередь, следующих ученых: Лари Розен, Джей Дэвид Болтер, Стивен Даунз, Джей Лемке, Гюнтер Кресс, Сёрен Бриер и др. В их работах особо отмечается значительное влияние цифровых технологий и интернет-коммуникации на все стороны жизни общества, на внутренний психологический и интеллектуальный мир человека, на профессиональную и образовательную деятельность, а также подчеркивается важность соответствующих исследований и недостаточное использование преимуществ интернет-коммуникации и цифровых технологий в научной, просветительской, образовательной, общественной и культурной деятельности. Особое внимание в статье уделено тенденции к визуализации в глобальных информационных потоках и ее роли в обработке информации и трансфере знаний. В статье подчеркивается также, что влияние современных цифровых технологий на все стороны жизни человека, включая интеллектуальную деятельность, нуждается в дальнейшем углубленном исследовании.
Ключевые слова: инновации в работе интеллекта человека, киберсемиотика, трансфер знаний.
Riabtseva N.K.
ORCID: 0000-0002-2042-4615, PhD in Philology, Institute of Linguistics, Russian Academy of Sciences CONTEMPORARY DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES AND INNOVATIONS IN HUMAN INTELLIGENCE
Abstract
New digital technologies not only "change language" (David Cristal), but also "upgrade" human intelligence making it perform new and uncommon operations. The present paper is an analysis and a survey of most prominent innovations in human intelligence, which are instigated by the latest digital information technologies. These innovations include, according to the point of view of outstanding specialists in contemporary digital technologies, such operations as multitasking, serendipity, connectivity, hypermodality, visuality, and cybersemiotic convergence of objective and virtual reality. The paper is based on the data presented in the publications of such outstanding "digital" specialists as Larry Rosen, Jay David Bolter, Steven Downes, Jay Lemke, Gunther Kress, Soren Brier, etc. In their works they particularly stress the impact of digital technologies and internet communication on all spheres of human activities, their role in the inner psychological and mental states, in professional and educational domain, as well as the importance of their investigation and a gap between the intensive development of digital technologies and their insufficient usage in scientific, didactic, social and cultural life. Special attention in the paper focuses on the tendency towards visualization in the global information flows and its role in information processing and knowledge transfer. The paper particularly stresses the fact that the impact of contemporary digital technologies on all spheres of human activities, including the intellectual one, needs further and profound investigation.
Keywords: innovations in human intelligence, cybersemiotics, knowledge transfer.
Почта авторов / Author Email: [email protected]
Introduction
Digital/ information technologies not only promote automatic information retrieval and processing, as well as human language, but also introduce various kinds of innovations into almost all spheres of contemporary human activities. Besides, digital technologies promote all kinds of knowledge transfer and its integration, instigate creative and intellectual human activities, generate new digital culture, communication and education, give rise to various convergent socio-technical interfaces, etc. Of particular importance and interest are those new mental/ intellectual operations, states and processes that are provoked in the human mind by contemporary technological innovations.
Methods of investigation
Digital technologies make human intelligence and cognitive system function in a new info-intellectual space -the cyberspace. Its impact is being traced in various investigations directly and indirectly connected with cognitive studies. The identification, qualification and systematization of the relevant data are the main principles of investigation undertaken in the present study. It shows that digital technologists consider the following innovations in human intelligence, provoked by digital technologies, most important and perspective: 1) multitasking [54]; 2) serendipity [17]; 3) connectivity (of hypertext and thus of human consciousness, cognition, intelligence, science, education, etc.) [26]; 4) hypermodality (of displaying, processing, retrieving and combining information of different types/ modes in digital systems and thus in the human mind)
