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30SOCIAL ISSUES OF DOPING USE D.S. Timoshenko, Ph.D. student N.S. Shishova, Ph.D., professor
Russian State University of Physical Education, Sport, Youth and Tourism
Key words: doping, social phenomenon, society, social activities, competitive activities
This article concerns the social aspects of the doping phenomenon, forms of doping use in various kinds of human activities, including various forms of competitive activities; it identifies and describes the doping features as a wide social problem. Cultural studies of the doping phenomenon and philosophical analysis of the problem of the "ends and means" correlation and compliance in a variety of social activities demonstrate that elite sport is not a unique context where there is an issue of using substances of natural, narcotic and synthetic origins that contribute to enhancement of performance; and point out that the use of doping in the field of sport is directly related to modern society pharmacolization. Sport not only responds to social problems, but also appears as its specific indicator. All the above suggests there is the explicit relevance of social issues of doping use and the need for special abstraction of the sport social dimension and the ongoing research of sport interference with other areas of social life [1].
In this research modern approaches to the doping phenomenon were evaluated, types and forms of doping abuse existing in various types of social contexts, some forms of competitiveness within social activities were studied, the role of doping was defined both in competitive and non-competitive social activities via comparative analysis, the core of doping as a social problem was identified and described. From the 1950s the role of the main argument against doping has been given to the risk of health damage. And in this particular case, it is not about elite athletes, but about amateur athletes and people involved in sports for recreational purposes. Since that time, the issues of doping have received wide publicity, as the medical practices of the sports world have had direct social, cultural, and political effects. At this moment arguments have shifted from concerns about the public health towards the violation of «fair play» principles during sport events.
The representation of "doping" concept in the terms of historical and socio-cultural approaches is not finalized and is being studied. The question about doping as a form of cheating in the field of sport, on the one hand, and as practices in various social activities, on the other hand, acquires the features of a discussion. This subject is actively being developed by researchers from different countries, who focus their attention on various aspects of the question of the social sense, socio-cultural content of doping issues in the modern world.
Arguing about the modern sport phenomenon, I.M. Bykhovskaya thinks it necessary to develop the research of sports in historical and cultural context, as sport as a sociocultural phenomenon and a social
institution reflects the features of epoch and culture, social situation and the dominant ideology. The researcher mentions that sport practices related primarily to the manifestation of the maximum performance of a human as "a corporal man" with development, improvement and "competitive presentation" of his corporal and physical natures. And speaking about corporality as a socio-cultural phenomenon, the researcher presents the main groups of factors determining the nature of changes taking place within biological human body, and factors that influence the characteristics of perception and evaluation of the human body [2, 3]. After all, the socially accepted standards and prevailing culture ideals and values cause human body modifications, which indirectly lead us to the doping nature speculation.
Saraf M.J. considers elite sport as professional field in the entertainment industry, as far as that professional competitiveness needs social understanding particularly in these terms. Competitiveness, as an elite sport attribute, also must be interpreted and examined from a new perspective in connection with the problem of doping agents and doping in terms of its relationship with the traditional aesthetic, ethical and religious values. Among the most acute contradictions of elite sport, Kulikov M.N. highlights the contradiction between the social significance of sport win for which "... we pay the price ..." and unacceptable payment for sports victory at the cost of cheating (doping) and their own health. [6] Most researchers are intended to admit that doping is unacceptable in the world of sports. However, opinions were divided, some believe that doping is a serious deviant behavior to be fight against, the others think it is an undesirable but inevitable consequence of institutionalization and professionalization of modern sport. It should be mentioned that one of the main reasons that initiated the prohibition of doping was the growing concern about athletes' health and the image of sport. The use of various substances and methods to improve performance was found unethical only when considering doping from this point of view [13, 16]. If speaking on the extent of development of this problem in foreign countries, the contribution of «The International Network of Humanistic Doping Research» (INHDR) should be mentioned (created in 2002). The goal of this association is to share and encourage research on doping practices, and to offer perspectives that may differ from the standard anti-doping doctrine that underlies the official "War on drugs" in sports.
V. Moller has carried out a cultural analysis of the doping phenomenon based on the discrepancy between the use of the performance-enhancing substances by cycling sport and the outrage they provoke among people introducing into scientific circulation such a term as "anti-doping fundamentalism", the author describes his research as "an interest in the connection between doping and the nature of elite sport". Carefully not to advocate for the legalization of doping, the author bases his argument on the idea that "the Devil" may be in the sport itself. Doping requires a deeper approach than just a representation of the arguments against the use of performance-enhancing drugs, it is necessary to start a debate, rejecting common negative perception of doping in culture and society [12,14].
One of the association members, G. Spitzer, writes about the necessity of humanistic enquiry of doping, as medical and legal approaches give the supporting role to the research of the social aspects of doping. At the moment we can talk about doping as a global social problem. The author talks about distribution of various widespread doping methods - used from amateurs to representatives of certain professional areas (military service, fire fighting, etc.), thereby showing the diversity of the doping agenda as a social phenomenon.
Empirical studies of the prevalence of doping in Germany and Europe reveal that the number of abusers in commercial fitness clubs as well as clubs that are not covered by the sports system exceeds the number of dopers among competitive elite athletes. The author also suggests that the process of the diffusion of professional sport across society has now reached the point where adolescents who do not practice sports take doping substances such as anabolic steroids in order to improve their appearance. Recently, our society has seen an increase in the number of adolescents and middle-aged people that are not involved in sports on a professional basis who, however, use steroids for physical development of their bodies, although there is still no evidence that steroids help building muscles without training [1, 15]. In his article, J. Mazanov discusses the need for a deeper study of the social issues of doping, providing examples and capacities of doping use in different social contexts (military and emergency services, academic environment, world of classical music) and about the lack of any kind of scandals associated with the use of various stimulants in the described contexts. J. Hoberman goes further and compares the use of hormonal drugs, both as a therapy, as well as the performance improvement method among police officers and professional golfers. Using this line of reasoning he points out on illegal acquisition and use of anabolic steroids and other drugs among police officers and allegedly to increase sex drive, he draws attention to the minimal news coverage of such situations, while athletes who use doping are under constant media pressure. The researcher raises the question of the use of drugs and stimulants to improve performance in everyday life and the hard ban on their use in elite sport.
A.V. Christiansen examines the possibility of passage of the bill that will make doping control compulsory in all amateur gyms in Denmark, introducing the term "fitness doping". The author believes that the bill constitutes a potential violation of the European Convention for Human Rights (ECHR). The purpose of this law is to eliminate or minimize the use of drugs that boost performance and improve image, because they cause serious harm to public health. Speaking on the polar differences in the antidoping approach: the principle of «fair play» in global elite sport and preventative health care among people involved in amateur sports, the researcher believes that both objectives cannot be achieved using the same means.
Public sentiment towards the use of doping agents in various activities is quite ambiguous: in some activities the use of performance-enhancing drugs can be excused and morally acceptable, in others - is unacceptable and immoral. How to assess and position doping from this point of view?
J. Hoberman argues that "doping is unconventional, or at least unusual method of increasing mental or physical abilities. It is a part of the lifestyle in which the highest value is maximum performance, and the meaning consists in raising them". Elite sport and society with its inherent forms of competitiveness are similar in content which reveals "the dominant principle of top achievements and the basic idea of competition" [7].
Doping is widely used and being taken outside the world of sports in various social contexts, including various forms of competition. There exist many different types of competitive activities in addition to sports tournaments and competitions: market competition, professional rivalry and academic environment can also be characterized as types of social competition, not to need to mention the various competitions and festivals in the art world, be it music contest or art exhibition. For example, doping in the world of classical music is becoming quite common. Beta-blockers help musicians to calm down and steady hands, enabling better delivery of a piece more likely to receive positive reviews and larger audiences, and moreover, the use of stimulants may give an advantage in winning the first place or gaining commercial success in the career [12, 18].
Doping in the academic context is also quite real [4, 7, 12]. Many researchers have even introduced the term "academic doping", raising questions about how to determine the effect of "drugs that increase cognitive performance". High level of competition in universities and stress are increasingly becoming the reasons for which students and applicants tend to use stimulants. Any student can use different combinations of modafinil and methylphenidate, for example, taking a couple of caffeine tablets in order to be able to study longer before an important exam or focus on the content of lectures and seminars. This student may win a scholarship or a prestigious internship over another, "clean" student. French researchers indicate the increased consumption of psychotropic drugs that cause serious public concern: 30 % of students are resorting to drugs use at least once a year, and every fifth student takes stimulant medications before the exam. We can distinguish vitamins and anti-asthenic medications among the popular medical agents that students and schoolchildren take. Often, students even use cannabis to relax (20%), and sometimes they use even stronger substances, such as tranquilizers and beta-blockers (10%). While this kind of doping is considered legal (except, of course, drugs and potent medications that can be obtained only by prescription), it is not approved by society, but also is being initiated by the current state pharmacologization. This phenomenon provokes quite a paradoxical situation when teachers recognize the use of stimulants such as caffeine and amphetamine valid in preparation for important exams, but the use of similar structures and effects methods during sport competitions is considered fully unacceptable [4, 7]. In this context it is worth mentioning the doping control procedure existing in the world of elite sports and lacking in the academic world.
The question that our society needs to ask relates to implementing ethical and moral principles: does the desire for social progress allege the means which people may use to achieve them? J. Hoberman says that
"modern society, focused on performance, has not solved this paradox yet". [7]
If speaking on competitive activity, the use of doping in extreme contexts should be mentioned, for example, the well-known cases of the use of various stimulants by military and emergency services [7, 10, 12]. You can imagine a situation like this, a firefighter, who is rescuing people will be caught up in the use of anabolic steroids. In this context, the negative connotations of "doping" might be reconstructed as "self-sacrifice".
J. Mazanov also describes another social aspect associated with self-sacrifice, which is military service. If you think about the historical background of doping in sport, since World War 2 soldiers were given cocktails of drugs to keep them fighting, and it is known that German soldiers were provided with amphetamine as "pep pills" Moreover, amphetamine derivatives, as pervitin, also were used by pilots during the Vietnam War and the Gulf War [7, 12, 22]. The researcher is developing this idea saying that it is nanve to think that this aspect of the military has given way to social mores around doping in sport. The use of some substances from the rational approach perspective of their use is directly related to the perception peculiarities prevailing in society. In this context, the negative connotations of doping might be reconstructed as a duty of care to front line soldiers. Although government and public organizations rather condemn such practices which leads to the fact that the military continue to conceal the use of doping agents. That unmistakably evokes actions of sports team members.
Doping is acquiring the features of a wide social issue, the question arises about various approaches: a therapeutic need for doping drugs and the use of stimulants to improve performance. No one would be surprised if it is reported about the use of drugs at the workplace. Truck drivers take amphetamines, miners in the Andes chew coca leaves, classical music performers use beta-blockers, and military police, prison officers and doormen - steroids [7, 10, 12, 18, 22]. Society pharmacolization leads to the uprise of the doping culture, and athletes do not play key roles here and, indeed, are not responsible for its occurrence. Moldrup et al. state that the penetration of doping into a society can be explained by "medically enhanced normality" [13], where marketing and other social pressures constantly reinforce that people are inadequate or missing out and that doping can help people achieve these norms. The therapeutic aims of drugs use among professionals outside the world of sport have been long ago replaced in the minds of people to a pragmatic purpose of achieving high performance. Then the question arises - what is the difference between elite sport doping culture and the use of anabolic steroids by ordinary people? J. Hoberman thinks that the world of labor, focused on high performance and working ability, is very little different from the world of sports; the workplace level of performance is a critical factor at work places, and its level boost is considered a sign of success. The use of a number of doping methods which are successfully used in various social contexts to improve the results is strictly prohibited among athletes. The author observes that professionals consider the use of such methods as their legitimate right.
Solution to such paradoxes of modern society requires a wide range of studies, including research of doping as a phenomenon in the context of cultural and historical analysis. The study of the historical antecedents, various cultural concepts and approaches to this phenomenon might help to understand and uncover what causes gave rise to various forms of doping in the world of sport. Furthermore, doping and performance-enhancing in sports and its influence to society might require a cross-disciplinary approach that integrates research from three different domains of academia - natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities - to shed new light on the issue of doping and performance enhancement in sports.
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Author's contacts: DStimoshenko@sochi2014.com
