CC BY
21
DOI 10.14526/01_1111_165
РАЗВИТИЕ ФИЗИЧЕСКОЙ КУЛЬТУРЫ И СПОРТА В КЕНИИ В 21 ВЕКЕ: РАННЯЯ
ОЦЕНКА
Дженет Kamenju - старший преподаватель, Кафедра физического воспитания и спорта, Университет Найроби, Кения.
Элайджа Rintaugu - старший преподаватель, Кафедра менеджмента организации отдыха и физических упражнений науки, Декан школы прикладных гуманитарных наук, Университет Кениатта, Кения. Фрэнсис М. Мванги - доктор философии, преподаватель, Кафедра менеджмента организации отдыха и физических упражнений науки, Университет
Кениатта, Кения.
E-mail: framwa@ gmail. com
Аннотация. К концу 20 века многие авторы в Кении предсказывали, какие будут основные направления развития физического воспитания и спорта в 21 веке. К этим направлениям относятся: борьба с сильным влиянием колониализма и неоимпериализма; реализация международных постановлений; освоение реалий глобализации. Данные, предоставленные в отчетах, свидетельствуют об увеличении заболеваний населения из-за малоподвижного образа жизни. Цель этой статьи - оценить развитие физического воспитания и спорта в Кении в начале 21 века. Методы: ретроспективный анализ и обобщение научной литературы, анализ документации. Результаты. Показано, какие факторы оказали влияние на развитие физического воспитания и спорта в Кении в прошлом. Обсуждаются обстоятельства и факторы, которые влияют на развитие физического воспитания и спорта страны в настоящее время и в обозримом будущем. К этим факторам относятся: новые принципы конституции, недавно принятый закон о спорте 2013 и структуры, созданные по этому закону. Заключение. Отмечена необходимость совершенствования процесса физического воспитания и спорта в соответствии с требованиями времени. Предложено использовать радикальные подходы, а также практику других стран, чтобы снизить процент заболеваемости населения страны из-за малоподвижного образа жизни (в качестве примера приведены Япония и Россия).
Ключевые слова: физические упражнения и спортивные науки, укрепления здоровья, Закон о спорте 2013.
DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS IN KENYA IN THE 21ST CENTURY: AN EARLY APPRAISAL
Janet W. Kamenju (PhD), Senior lecturer, Department of Physical Education & Sports, University of Nairobi, Kenya.
Elijah G. Rintaugu (PhD), Senior lecturer, Department of Recreation Management & Exercise Science, Dean, School of Applied human Sciences, Kenyatta University, Kenya.
Francis M. Mwangi* (PhD), Lecturer, Department of Recreation Management & Exercise Science, Kenyatta University, Kenya.
Corresponding author: Dr. Francis Mundia Mwangi,
P.O Box 7356 - 01000, Thika, Kenya.
E-mail: framwa@gmail.com
Abstract. Towards the end of twentieth century many authors predicted what would be the issues of concern in the development of physical education (PE) and sports in the 21st century. These included; stemming the heavy influence of colonialism and neo-imperialism, implementation of international decrees, as well as embracing the realities of globalization. More than a decade into the new century now, PE and sports continue to evolve without major dramatic turns in many countries. With reported global challenge if raising burden of sedentary and lifestyle diseases, there is need for evaluating the status of PE and sports against prevailing local and global circumstances. The purpose of this paper was to evaluate the development of physical education and sports in Kenya in the early 21st century. Methods: a retrospective analysis and synthesis of scientific literature, analysis of documents. Results. Factors have influenced the development of physical education and sport in Kenya in the past are shown. The circumstances and factors that effect the development of physical education and sport of the country currently and in the foreseeable future are discussed. These factors include: the new principles of the Constitution, the newly adopted law on sports 2013 and structures establishment under this act. Factors that have influenced the development of PE and sports in the past and those currently driving the field are discussed, as well as the factors that are expected to influence the same in the foreseeable future. Conclusion. The necessity of physical education and sport is process perfection in accordance with the requirements of the time. It is proposed to use radical approaches and practices of other countries, to reduce the rate of the population morbidity due to sedentary living (given as an example Japan and Russia). Adapting some best practice and some radical approaches to stem the rising challenge of un-healthy lifestyle is suggested. Keywords: exercise and sports science, Health promotion, Sports Act 2013
Introduction
Towards the end of 20th century and in the early 21st century, many authors in Africa and the world over elucidated on the expectations in the development of physical education and sports in the 21st century and what would be the major drivers. For the African countries, the issues that were enumerated included; shaking off the heavy influence of colonialism and neo-imperialism [4,52], implementation of international decrees [41,26,40], more student-centred, inclusive and motivating approaches[28,20], as well as considerations for the effects of globalization[20]. More than a decade into the new century, physical education and sports continue to evolve without major turns in African, despite the predictions of making great strides in the field. The hosting of the World Cup successfully in African soil for the first time in 2010 in South Africa is perhaps the most notable sporting milestone for the continent in the 21st Century, so far.
On the other hand, many studies have reported increase in sedentary /
hypokinetic lifestyles in many countries [31,5,53], with the associated increase in medical cost and productivity losses due to illness as well as premature mortality[10]. Calls have been made to evaluate PE and Sports pedagogies in the face of emerging challenges [3,11]. However, different parts of the global society including African countries evolve at different pace and in diverse ways. Therefore there is need to narrow down the focus and consider the prevailing local circumstances under which the expected development (or lack of) is judged. Early appraisals, stock-taking and continuous evaluation of the path anticipated and predicted by many authors towards the end of preceding century are warranted. These are necessary in order to "keep eyes on the ball" for proper implementation of sound national and international decrees, to keep vigil on the promises of the enacted policies, and to ensure that the society reaps the anticipated benefits of the same. The purpose of this review paper was thus to evaluate the development of physical education and sports
in Kenya in the early 21st century. The factors that are currently driving the field are discussed, as well as the factors that are expected to influence the same in the foreseeable future. Suggestions and recommendations for the best way forward are elucidated.
Background of physical education and sports development in Kenya
It is usually said that "the strength of foundation determines the height of a building", but also "the attitude determines the altitude" in matters success. It is thus prudent to consider the foundations on which the anticipated development in physical education and sports in Kenya is expected to "build on", the challenges encountered and/or endured in the past, as well as the attitudes that have shaped the field thus far. These are expected to inform the directions and strategies that the field and the players are likely to take.
Physical activities for recreational and health pursuits have been part of Kenyan communities traditional lifestyle dating back to the period before the country of Kenya came into being as it is known today. According to Wanderi [52], various indigenous traditional sports have prevailed in Kenya as part of the communities' culture and a way of life since the history of mankind. In the traditional era -also commonly referred to as 'pre-colonial era', people engaged in traditional games and sports activities such as wrestling, racing exercises, stick fights, hunting with use of spears and arrows), board games, bull fights, dances, rustling, among others [4,52]. Survival and prestige were the main drivers of the activities, and the same evolved with the changes of the dynamic culture.
While physical activities and sports have been traced to pre-historic man [30], modern Physical Education is said to have emerged as a profession in the late 1800 [54]. Several European and American personalities credited as pioneers [17], and the ancient Greek traditions informing the development of the same [50]. Development of physical education and sports in Kenya was heavily
influenced by colonisation just like many other aspects of life, and in many other countries especially in Africa, in the 19th and 20th centuries [52,39]. British settlers and Asian contractors established professional teams in form of clubs as early as 1922 before the establishment of formal schools [37,51]. Later, sports practiced in Britain and physical training using activities with similar biasness were introduced and promoted in schools as part of extracurricular activities. Same activities were continued after colonial era where they were included in the curriculum in form of PE lessons [37,51], while a few of the sports such as soccer, hockey and athletics were professionally organized as early as pre-independent Kenya [37]. At the turn of the 20th century, many sports were popular in Kenya, played both professionally and as recreational physical activities, including athletics (track & field and other running events), cricket, motor sports, soccer, rugby union, volleyball, basketball, swimming, boxing, handball and netball. Rounders, softball, cycling, some martial arts, tennis, table tennis, squash, badminton, golf, chess, goal ball, roller sports, horse riding, polo, weightlifting, canoeing, wrestling, mountain sports among others sports are also played in Kenya, but not enjoying wide participation [18,52]. The country is however mainly known for her global dominance in middle-distance and long-distance races since 1960s [19,29].
Physical education has been referred to as comprehensive education content covered using physically active approach that involves teaching social, cognitive, and physical skills, and achieving other goals through movement [33]. Achieving its lifelong benefits of health-enhancing physically active lifestyle has faced numerous challenges in many countries [20,24,36]. These include limited budgetary allocations, low priority when compared to other disciplines covered in schools, negative attitudes from policy makers and implementers, pedagogical challenges, among others. The implication of these is that only a small number of people are physically active
to the recommended level, and a much smaller minority continues to play the games, sports or activities that they experienced at school [28]. Worse still, is the fact that there has been and still is a big gap between the enacted national policies on PE and sports on one hand, and the practice on the ground. The governments have been accused of being slow or reticent in translating policies into action / actual implementation and assurance of quality of delivery [24]. For example, the weekly physical education lessons in primary and secondary schools are not utilized towards achieving the intended goals [36].
Recent trends in the development of physical education and sports in Kenya
Notable achievements have been made in the early 21st century in the development of physical education and sports in Kenya. The period has witnessed expanded training and education in the field. More institutions of higher learning have launched academic programs in Physical Education and Sports or related courses. University of Nairobi, Masinde-Muliro University of Science and Technology, Laikipia University, Moi University and University of Eldoret have all started training courses related to physical education and sports [12]. These have added on to what have been undertaken by Kenyatta University since 1970s, and at numerous tertiary colleges in the country. Moreover, higher intake of students interested in the related programs has been witnessed at Kenyatta University, as well as more diversity of the programs being launched by other institutions.
Exemplary performances have been recorded at global level with the country's middle and long distance athletes consolidating their dominance in the world major competitions with amazing consistency. The period has seen Kenyan athletes recapture their glory in middle distance, an area which seemed to dwindle towards the turn of last century, as well as improvement in female athletes in endurance events. Paralympics athletes have also recorded impressive results in major global athletics events [41].
Other notable outstanding global performances have been registered by Kenyan Rugby Sevens, and an increasing number of professional footballers excelling in international and professional league home and abroad [15]. Globalization and the emerging digital age with its increased access to irfonmation, concept of"u-tube athletes" have cropped up exemplified by international javelin thrower -Julius Yego who have achieved a lot in the event, thereby proving that Kenyans can also excel in field events too [9]. Numerous online study programmes have also been launched by various institutions. Content delivery and evaluation modes have all been affected by development in information and communication technology. Innovative ways are needed to ensure that the advancements in modern technologies are tapped to improve the quality of training in the field [3,20,34].
Enacting of the Sports Act 2013 is a mile stone in the development of physical education and sports in Kenya. The envisaged entities such as Sports Kenya and Kenya Academy of Sports are expected to play the role of promoting development of and sports at national, county and sub-county levels [22]. The implementation of the act however, needs to kick off in earnest and involve all the relevant stakeholders. Prudent management and transparency in the running of the sports organization structures such as the envisaged National Sports Fund and sports rotary is expected to play major role in the development of the field.
The Kenyan new constitution enacted in 2010 fashioned along the principle of devolution is also a major factor that is set to shape the development of physical education and sports in Kenya [23]. Devolvement of some sports federations' county branches such as in tennis has started, with the effect of reaching and exposing more people to the respective sporting activities. One only hopes that the intrigues witnessed in the past at national federations will not trickle down to the county ant sub-county levels.
Sports tourism, sports charity and sports philanthropy are some of other trends that are emerging. With world renown sports super stars such as Serena Williams, Samuel Etoo, Uasin Bolt, Christian Ronaldo visiting the country and /or launching their separate
initiatives in education, health care, conservation and other social-economic programmes [16]. Maasai Cricket Warriors team which is made of Morans promotes cultural relations by staging sports while clad in traditional regalia, and educating the local communities on serious problems such as Aids and female genital mutilation [8]. Participation in sports for peace and humanitarian interventions such as Tecla Lorupe Peace Marathon and One.com has also been on increase [25].
On the flipside, however, some challenges have been witnessed that impact negatively on the development of the sector. Several cases of alleged doping have emerged in local and international media [46]. Even though these cases are yet to be confirmed by World Anti-doping Agency (WADA) or any other agent, the fallout in goodwill associated with such media reports will adversely affect Kenyan sports. It is important to note that Kenyan athletes are among the most tested for doping [1,49]. The other negative development is the reported run-away corruption and mismanagement by Kenyan sports officials [2,47]. This is epitomized in the burgled Team Kenya outing to the Rio Olympic Games [2,14,55].
Recommendations for the Foreseeable Future
As Kenya and other parts of the world continue to evolve and develop, the society has witnessed an ever increasing number of hypokinetic, non-communicable and lifestyle diseases such as hypotension, obesity, cancer, and type II diabetes among others [5,6,53]. Modernization and technological advancement has associated with un-healthy lifestyle leading to increased risk factors such as excess weight and its concomitant negative effects on the quality of life, medical cost, as well as productivity losses due to disability, illness and premature mortality [10]. The role of physical education and sports in its various forms in prevention and management of these conditions is well documented [45,50,10]. It is therefore expected that the field will continue to expand and evolve in order to cope with its ever
increasing role of promoting health and well-being among the different populations. The Kenyan Vision 2030 economic blue print that aims to transform the country to middle income is expected to raise awareness for health and quality life, even as the lifestyle transition is expected to be accompanied by increased sedentary and diet-related chronic diseases [31]. This coupled with the recent trends cited above are expected to raise the awareness of the importance of the field, thus expectantly give impetus and boost the professional growth in Kenya. However, developing relevant policies and training programmes, mobilizing resources and investing in equipment and facilities remain high in the list of prioritization as pointed out by Mwisukha et al. [32].
Way forward into the country's foreseeable future in the PE and sports related sectors include making more inclusive, harmonious and synergistic efforts by all stakeholders/stake-owners. Policy makers and implementers should work in close consultations to review and update regulations and curriculum, as well as in adapting international recommendations and best practices. The curriculum for the various courses related to PE and Sports need to reflect the glowing nature of the field, ensuring specialization in its diverse subfields. This would be in line with the recommendations by Daada [13], who expounded on the need for increased career paths in Physical Education and Sport to march the economic realities of a country. More practical oriented curriculum in the various institutions is called for in order to cater for the needs of growing sports related professions. Innovative ways to make physical activities fun and attractive to all demographics -whether in school home or at workplace, need to be continuously reviewed to enhance attitude, support, and more participation in the same.
With the burden of sedentary and related uh-healthy lifestyle increasing in the modern society, some drastic measures may be needed to cub the negative trend. Enacting and enforcing "metabo" laws as being
practiced in Japan [27,38], is an option to be considered. Metabo law refers to a set of guidelines called the Standards Concerning Implementation of Special Health Examinations and Special Public Health Guidance, Japanese Ministry of Health, Welfare, and Labor Order 159, effective April 1, 2008. Among other things, these guidelines call for a maximum waist size of 33.5 inches (85 centimeters) for men and 35.4 inches (90 centimeters) for women [27,38]. Under this law, citizens are required to undergo mandatory annual examinations to confirm compliant with these guidelines. Those who are not compliant are subjected to some consequences which include requirement to attend counselling sessions over three months or until the set standards are achieved, and financial implications to the employer and/or the local government [27,38]. Japanese organisations are also required to conduct exercise sessions under workplace health promotion and interventions [7]. The intention of these programmes is to curb the rise of metabolic syndrome (- a number of factors that lead to diabetes and cardiovascular disease including obesity, high blood pressure, high glucose and cholesterol levels), thus stem the country's ballooning health care costs of their population. Facing similar high and rising health care and opportunity costs, Kenya can benefit from such approach which would make the employers invest in corporate fitness programmes, which would in turn fuelling further growth and development of the fields of PE and Sports.
Another equally radical option is making physical and sports training drills and tests mandatory as part of preparation for labour market and good citizenship. It has been reported that Russia is considering bringing back the old Soviet regime's physical training program known as GTO (a Russian acronym meaning "Ready for Labour and Defense") [42]. Noting that physical education has been losing ground to its competitors -TV, computers and the "sedentary lifestyle" in general, the proponent of this idea argue that it would set the
required standard in physical culture. The GTO program was physical education program designed for Soviet educational, professional and sports organizations, and included mandatory sports training drills and tests for the same. Those who passed the tests were honoured with special gold or silver GTO badges, depending on their performance [42]. This approach can also be helpful in Kenya if the concept of National Youth Service [35] is blended with that one of Presidential Awards which covers Service, Adventurous Journey, Skills and Physical Recreation [48]. Borrowing the positive aspects of the above ideas and adapting them to local circumstances may yield success, in line with recommendations by Chin and Edginton [11] who expounded on the need to identify and validate best practices from world over. Rejuvenation and renewal of physical and health education has also been suggested in the face of numerous opportunities and challenges that are provided in this 21st century [3]. Authors have recommends rethinking and /or reinvention of the physical and health education pedagogy, as well as exploring of new and different models of best practice in order to develop and acquire new strategies, models, procedures and programs that can cater for the emerging needs [3,11].
Less dramatic but quite important options are also available to help improve practice of PE and sports and related areas in Kenya. The framework for implementation of the recently enacted Sports Act 2013 should ensure broad participation by stakeholders in matters sports and related fields. The Sports Kenya and Kenya Academy of Sports envisioned by the Act need to be actualized and their mandate expanded to promote and regulate practice of sports related disciplines and code of ethics, including certifying, commissioning and recalling of coaches, athletics trainers, sports therapists, recreational therapist, sports physicians, among others. The envisaged county sports academies need to sponsor research and projects (such as assessment needs for county sports requirements), organize PE & sports
workshops, seminars and conferences at national, county and sub-county levels to disseminate variety of academic and research outcomes.
The country should also invest in more diverse sports, especially the other endurance sports such as swimming, ultramarathon, cycling, triathlon, among others, as well as field events. It should also revive its lost glory in hockey, cricket and boxing. County leagues and inter-county championships should be organized, coupled by wide scouting of sports talents by the national federations in order to constitute formidable national teams. The country should also tap into the emerging relationship with the eastern countries [43,44] and develop sports disciplines popular in those countries and related infrastructures. These include sports such as martial arts, gymnastics, diving and table tennis, as well as therapeutic modalities such as acupressure, chiropractic, among others. Strengthening the WADA and their local agents to undertake elaborate athlete education in matters of illegal unsafe performance enhancement as well as legal and safe ergogenics in sports would also ensure that Kenyan sports avoids the pitfalls of doping. The corruption and mismanagement can be curbed by requiring and enforcing high moral standards among all those involved in Kenyan sports at all levels. Improved discipline of officials, athletes and spectators would also go a long way to promote positive image of the sporting fraternity and possibly attract more support, sponsorships and revenue from gate collections and royalties.
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Дженет Kamenju - старший преподаватель, Кафедра физического воспитания и спорта, Университет Найроби, Кения.
Элайджа г. Rintaugu - старший преподаватель, Кафедра менеджмента организации отдыха и физических упражнений науки, Декан школы прикладных гуманитарных наук, Университет Кениатта, Кения.
Фрэнсис М. Мванги - доктор философии, преподаватель, Кафедра менеджмента организации отдыха и физических упражнений науки, Университет Кениатта, Кения. - 01000, Тик, Кения. E-mail: framwa@ gmail. com
