Okhunova O.U.
PhD researcher TSUE
ADVANCING GENDER EQUALITY IN THE LABOR MARKET: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW AND ANALYSIS
Abstract. The research aims to assess the status of gender equality within the labor sphere. Methodologies employed include systematic and logical analysis, comparative analysis, generalization, systematization, among others. Current issues within the labor market, particularly regarding gender dynamics, have been scrutinized. A persistent concern in gender relations is the notable disparity in average wages between men and women. Analysis of employment trends over recent decades reveals a global increase in women's participation in labor markets, alongside men.
Keywords: Gender equality, Employment rate, Occupational segregation, Legal equality.
Introduction
The significance of the present academic paper lies in the imperative need to delve into the intricate issue of professional equality. Across the global labor landscape, gender segregation persists to varying degrees. Therefore, to comprehensively assess this phenomenon, it is crucial to gain a nuanced understanding of its temporal evolution and the multifaceted processes within the labor market and society at large that either exacerbate or mitigate gender asymmetry in occupational distribution. Furthermore, elucidating the economic ramifications of such segregation is essential.
Within the realm of economics, gender segregation emerges as a salient feature of the labor market, representing a dynamic and multifaceted phenomenon that profoundly influences its operations. This segmentation is commonly categorized into horizontal (branch and professional) and vertical (occupational) segregation. Gender segregation often underpins and is intricately intertwined with the concept of concentration, which denotes the unequal representation of genders across various professions, branches, or occupational categories. However, unlike concentration, gender segregation manifests as an asymmetrical distribution of men and women across different sectors rather than within a single domain.
In the contemporary landscape, the presence of a gender-balanced workforce has demonstrably positive effects on organizational performance. A diverse workforce tends to be more motivated, productive, and innovative, actively contributing to idea generation and promotion within the company. Consequently, these factors synergistically bolster financial performance and overall organizational growth. Moreover, fostering gender diversity expands the
pool of potential candidates, thereby addressing issues such as staff shortages more effectively.
In essence, this paper endeavors to explore the intricate interplay between gender segregation, organizational performance, and economic outcomes. By shedding light on these dynamics, it seeks to contribute to a deeper understanding of the complexities surrounding professional equality and pave the way for informed policy interventions and organizational practices aimed at fostering inclusive and equitable work environments.
Literature review
Gender research has recently garnered considerable attention, particularly concerning gender equality in professional engagement. It is evident that gender disparities significantly influence various realms of social activity, including the labor sector. In comparing inequalities between Europe and the United States, Blanchet, Chancel, and Gethin (2019) observed that Europe exhibits lower levels of inequality, with slower growth compared to the United States, despite differences in income and the pace of pan-European income redistribution.
Blau and Kahn (2017) utilized microdata from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) spanning from 1980 to 2010 to examine the gender pay gap, which notably diminished over the study period. Gender disparities persist in occupations, industries, and the division of labor, emphasizing ongoing challenges. Collins, Landivar, Ruppanner, and Scarborough (2020) highlighted the pandemic's impact on employment for dual-income parents, revealing that mothers experienced greater reductions in working hours compared to fathers.
Research by Hyland, Djankov, and Goldberg (2020) underscored persistent gender discrimination, especially evident in densely populated countries, hindering economic opportunities for women. Redmond and McGuinness (2017) found significant variation in convergence across Europe, with gender differences in job preferences contributing to a 10% pay gap, surpassing factors like length of service and education.
Deaton (2013) examined major global innovations and failures, linking gender inequality to growing inequality in the United States. He also analyzed the positive effects of economic growth in India and China. Amado, Santos, and Sao Jose (2018) developed an enhanced method for measuring the gender pay gap and applied it across 20 European countries, revealing substantial wage disparities for women.
Mortensen (2015) emphasized that formal legal equality is intrinsic to law, defining equality as the equitable legal standing of individuals before the law, encompassing rights, freedoms, and responsibilities. Piasna and Plagnol (2017) investigated how working conditions impact women's employment decisions and birth rates across 27 European countries, finding that mothers with young children are more likely to hold senior positions. Joyce and Xu (2019) proposed the creation of effective programs to address various forms of inequality, conducting
a comparative analysis of political institutions and policy actions in the developed world.
The study of gender equality aims to mitigate disparities among individuals, guided by international legal frameworks on human rights.
Results and discussions
In 1995, the employment-to-population ratio illustrated a disparity between genders, with 41.3% for women and 56% for men. Notably, this gap was most pronounced in lower-middle-income nations, where it reached approximately 25%, and least pronounced in high-income countries, hovering around 5%. Over the years, global employment trends have fluctuated. In 1993, the workforce comprised 948 million females and 1,425 million males, figures that shifted by 2003 to 1,130 million females and 1,661 million males. By 2000, male employment rates stood at about 73%, in contrast to nearly 48% for females. Subsequent to a slight decline for both genders until 2019, a significant drop occurred in 2020. Despite subsequent increases until 2022 (with rates of 67.86% for males and 43.82% for females), these figures remained lower than those of 2000. Nonetheless, the gender gap in employment rates remained relatively constant throughout these years.
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Fig. -1. The Ratio of Female to Male Labor Force Participation Rate (%)
Source: The World Bank
Gender Stereotypes permeate societal expectations, particularly pressuring women to adhere to traditional roles such as house care and childcare, leaving little time to pursue employment outside the home. According to Accountability Lab, a staggering 83% of women forego seeking employment due to household and childcare obligations. UN News highlights that entrenched gender roles are a primary reason for women constituting nearly 70% of healthcare occupations globally. Despite the demanding nature of these roles, the healthcare and caregiving sectors offer relatively low wages compared to other fields, leading men to explore alternative career paths. Conversely, women face limited options,
as they often encounter underrepresentation, lower wages, and inferior working conditions in most other professions. Furthermore, male-dominated industries perpetuate toxic gender stereotypes, hindering women's advancement. Persistent biases regarding women's suitability for STEM fields further exacerbate gender imbalances, dissuading women from pursuing careers in male-dominated sectors.
Lack of Opportunities stems from cultural perceptions that women lack ambition, leadership qualities, and commitment to their careers. Older organizational structures, designed to favor men, persist, impeding women's progress in the workplace. The underrepresentation of women historically has left today's women with few role models and limited inspirations. Research indicates that this dearth of role models discourages women from seeking senior leadership positions, resulting in a scarcity of female talent, particularly evident in STEM fields, where only 32% of graduates were female in 2016.
Gender Bias in Companies significantly contributes to workplace gender imbalances. Harmful HR practices, such as gender discrimination in decision-making, perpetuate gender biases and adversely affect women's mental and physical well-being, as well as their job performance. Reports suggest that discriminatory practices, coupled with lower pay and status, contribute to women's marginalization in the workplace.
Government initiatives to promote gender equality encompass several key
areas:
1. Equal Pay: Achieving equal pay for equal work requires recognizing the equal value of work regardless of gender. Across many countries, the gender pay gap persists at around 20%, highlighting the need for targeted policies. Addressing occupational segregation, particularly in leadership roles, is crucial. Combating both conscious and unconscious gender discrimination necessitates educational efforts, effective communication strategies, and the implementation of public policies aimed at fostering equality.
2. Pay Transparency: Transparency in pay structures facilitates the identification and comparison of gender-based wage disparities. By shedding light on underlying inequalities, pay transparency enables governments to formulate informed policies to address and rectify them. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), implementing measures to enhance pay transparency is instrumental in narrowing the gender gap and fostering fairness in the labor market. It empowers workers by providing them with tangible evidence to negotiate wages and challenge instances of gender-based salary discrimination.
3. Family-Friendly Policies: Implementing family-friendly policies is pivotal in mitigating gender disparities in employment and narrowing the gender wage gap. These policies aim to prevent women from being disproportionately affected by childcare responsibilities, thereby enhancing accessibility to childcare facilities and support for elder care. Promoting gender-balanced family leave enables women to re-enter the workforce more swiftly after childbirth. Moreover, such policies challenge traditional gender norms regarding caregiving roles,
encouraging greater male participation in caregiving responsibilities. By fostering a more equitable distribution of caregiving duties, family-friendly policies contribute to dismantling entrenched gender stereotypes and promoting greater gender equality in the workforce.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the synthesis of literature and empirical findings underscores the enduring challenges and complexities surrounding gender equality in the labor market. Across various studies, it is evident that gender disparities persist, impacting employment opportunities, wages, and occupational segregation.
The research highlighted the fluctuating trends in global employment rates over time, underscoring persistent disparities between genders despite incremental progress. Moreover, societal expectations and entrenched gender stereotypes continue to hinder women's advancement, particularly in maledominated industries and leadership positions.
Government initiatives aimed at promoting gender equality, such as equal pay policies, pay transparency measures, and family-friendly policies, offer potential avenues for addressing these disparities. These policies not only seek to rectify existing inequalities but also aim to challenge traditional gender norms and promote a more inclusive and equitable workforce.
However, it is imperative to recognize that achieving gender equality requires multifaceted approaches that address deep-rooted societal norms, organizational biases, and structural barriers. Efforts to combat gender discrimination and promote diversity and inclusion must be sustained and comprehensive, involving collaboration across various sectors and stakeholders.
In moving forward, further research and policy interventions are needed to advance gender equality in the labor market and ensure that all individuals have equal opportunities to thrive and contribute to economic growth and development. By fostering an environment that values diversity and inclusivity, societies can harness the full potential of their workforce and promote social justice and prosperity for all.
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