CC BY
61
A STUDY OF SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS RELATED TO BULLYING VICTIMIZATION AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL
KHOLA SHAUKAT1, DR. QAISARA PARVEEN2, DR. MUHAMMAD ARSHAD DAHAR3 AND DR. TEHSEEN
EHSAN4
1Mphil (Education) Student, 2Associate Professor, 3Assistant Professor, 4Lecturer, Department of Education, PMAS Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi Pakistan.
Corresponding Author: DR. Qaisara Parveen ([email protected])
ABSTRACT
Bullying victimization remains a pervasive concern in educational settings, eliciting profound social and psychological consequences for those affected. This study examines the intricate interplay between social and psychological factors that contribute to the occurrence and impact of bullying victimization. Drawing from a comprehensive review of literature, this research investigates how various dimensions of the social environment, including peer group dynamics, cultural norms, social identity, family influences, and school climate, shape the prevalence and nature of bullying victimization. Concurrently, it delves into the intricate psychological processes experienced by victims, such as emotional distress, self-esteem erosion, and mental health implications. Bullying which encompasses repeated verbal, physical, and social behavior with the intention of causing physical, social, or psychological harm, is a pervasive and intentional abuse of power in interpersonal relationships. It can involve an individual or group misusing their actual or perceived power over one or more individuals who are unable to stop it. Another applied definitions stress a typical power imbalance between the bully and the victim, as an important aspect of bullying. Therefore, in this study realized that the need of assessing impact of bullying victimization. Main objectives of the study are, to find out impacts of bullying victimization on elementary students, to find out the difference in students of bullying victimization by gender. Nature of the study was quantitative and descriptive design was used. questionnaire was used as data collection tool; 5 Likert scale was also used for developing questionnaire. Population of the study was all private sector elementary schools in Islamabad, and 285 sample was drawn from the targeted population by using simple random sampling technique. Data was collected through questionnaire and analyzed through (SPSS). Findings reveals that social and psychological factors significantly influence bullying victimization. School, community, behavior and attitude, family, extracurricular activities and Peer rejection, self-esteem, and poor social skills are all factors that contribute to a child's weakness to bullying. By understanding and addressing these factors, educators, parents, and policymakers can work towards creating safe and inclusive environments that reduce the prevalence of bullying and support the well-being of all individuals.
Keywords: bullying Victimization, mental issues, academic performance, elementary students.
INTRODUCTION
Children experience both positive and unpleasant events throughout their lives. They encounter a variety of chances, obstacles, and events that change the way they see themselves and their life. Students are impacted by their environment in many different ways, including through their school experiences, internal resources, and other things. The phrase "e; experiences at school & quote; can relate to a variety of situations, such as bullying victimization, as well as the general atmosphere of the school, which can be either good or unpleasant. Bullying may be understood and contextualized differently depending on the culture. Bullying is typically seen as the aggressive assertion of authority where a stronger victim is regularly and purposefully targeted by a bully for social, emotional, or physical abuse. Children who take part might alternate between being a bully, a victim, or both. bullying has an impact on a lot of kids and increases their chance of developing long-term psychological, physical, and psychosomatic conditions. Bullying is a widespread problem in schools all across the world. Bullying affects between 9% and 54% of young people worldwide, depending on
3206
the study. The UK and other countries have different rates. According to the big Health Behavior in School-Aged Children survey from 2006, bullying prevalence among 13 - year-old boys and girls globally ranged from 4.8% to 35.8% and 8.6% to 45.2%, respectively. Sweden had the lowest rates, while Lithuania had the highest percentages. In the UK, Wales revealed 14% of boys and 13.7% of girls engaged in bullying, while England revealed 16.5% of boys and 12.1% of girls. More than half of students in the UK claim that bullying is an issue. Bullying can have far-reaching impacts on both the bully and the victim, negatively affecting their academic performance, relationships with their families and peers, as well as their psychological and physical health. As a result, schools work to put various intervention and preventative programmers into place. In addition, a range of criminal and civil legal measures have recently been employed to stop or penalize bullying. The majority of US states have passed anti bullying legislation that outlaws bullying tactics, but these laws also have definitional
problems that are found in empirical study. For instance, some states limit their attention to bullying that takes place physically or completely leave definitions up to localities and schools. Bullying victims may also choose to file civil lawsuits for torts relating to the bullying; this article gives examples of the challenges in doing so()Bullying as a behavioral feature can be conceptualized in various ways from a psychological point of view. Additionally, it could be considered a subset of aggressive behaviors. Bullying purposely causes harm to the target, much like other aggressive activities often do. Both physical and psychological pain can result from this. The rights of the child to human dignity, privacy, freedom, and security are violated by bullying behaviour. The victim, physical, emotional, social, and academic wellbeing are all impacted. (2) Bullying is a systematic and deliberate abuse of power in interpersonal interactions that includes repeated verbal, physical, and social behaviour with the aim of causing physical, social, or psychological harm. A person or group may abuse their actual or perceived power over one or others who are unable to stop them. Another applied definition of bullying emphasizes the normal power disparity that exists between the attacker and the victim as a key component. Statement of the problem
Bullying victimization in school is the ongoing, deliberate hostility of a victim who is weaker than the aggressor. Similar to today's situation, which shows that the majority of kids are victims of bullying, social and psychological problems are a major concern for those pupils. Due to being targeted by bullying, students start skipping school, spending less time with their families, and staying away from friends. Both academic achievement and problem-solving skills suffer from this approach. Many psychological and emotional conditions, such as melancholy, anxiety, sensitivity, stress, and tension, are brought on by bullying in students. In order to understand how bullying and victimizations are caused, this topic desperately needs research. As a result, social and psychological issues are a big worry among students who are victims. Students begin to skip classes, spend less time with their peers, and avoid friends because of their bullying victimization'
Research in this field is badly needed to investigate the caused by bullying victimization OBJECTIVES
1. To find out impacts of bullying victimization on elementary students.
2. To explore how much time, do students victimized by others. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
• Hypothesis 1: Elementary students who experience higher levels of peer rejection will be more likely to be victims of bullying.
• Hypothesis 2: Elementary students with lower self-esteem will be more susceptible to bullying victimization.
• Hypothesis 3: The presence of a positive and inclusive school climate will be associated with lower levels of bullying victimization among elementary students.
• Hypothesis 4: Elementary students who have stronger social support networks will be less likely to be victims of bullying.
3207
LITERATURE REVIEW
The lives of children are filled with both happy and negative experiences. They come across a range of opportunities, challenges, and experiences that affect how they view themselves and their lives. Students are influenced by the world around them in a variety of ways, including through their internal resources and abilities, their experiences in school, and other factors. One way to apply the development of advantageous qualities and resources to children is through specific duration; in children, covitality can foster beneficial results while reducing unpleasant ones (Finkelhor et al., 2007).
One significant factor affecting youngsters in today's classrooms is bullying. According to Hawker and Boulton (2000), 20% of pupils claim to have experienced bullying in school. According to data, 79% of students who experience bullying do not report it, which highlights both how ubiquitous bullying is in schools today and how difficult it is to assess how much bullying is being reported (Heim et al.,2017). There are various ways to explain bullying, but the most prevalent definition is that it involves unwelcome, unfavorable, and hostile behavior that frequently recurs over time and involves a real or perceived power imbalance among school-aged children (Olweus, 1994). Bullying is defined as "repeated aggressive behavior directed at a victim who is unable to defend himself or herself" (Olweus,2013). Other, commonly used definitions of bullying emphasis a typical power imbalance between the bully and the victim as an important aspect of bullying (Nansel et al., 2004). Victimization in school bullying is the ongoing, deliberate aggression of a victim who is weaker than the aggressor, or the bully (Olweus, 1994). According to Buhs et al. (2010) and Krueger and Jenkins (2014), bullies and their victims are both more likely to report increased emotional and behavioral issues as well as poorer in-school adjustment (e.g., higher student-teacher conflict, lower academic engagement and achievement).
The World Health Organization (WHO, 2020) expands on Olweus' (1994) description by adding that it frequently occurs in settings where children congregate, including schools, internet, and other settings. Despite having a similar nature, the differences in how bullying is defined paint a more nuanced picture of how bullying can affect a wide range of situations, locations, parties involved, and effects that can be taken into account. According on their understanding of the term, others' perceptions of bullying and its absence may vary (e.g., property damage or siblings). The numerous definitions also demonstrate that bullying is a pervasive problem that covers a wide range of various behaviors, results, and individuals.
Additionally, bullying has been divided into direct and indirect forms. Overt aggressiveness that involves direct, noticeable confrontations and may involve physical or verbal assaults is referred to as "direct bullying" (Marini et al., 2006). In contrast, indirect bullying is more covert and involves social manipulation that is less likely to be discovered or to result in punishment. It may involve spreading rumors, excluding or ostracizing peers, or both (Marini et al., 2006). Although research has shown that "females tend to endure indirect or relational bullying, whereas men are frequently the victims and perpetrators of direct forms of aggression," gender is not always a predictor of aggression (Lenzi et al., 2015, p. 416) 2.1 BULLYING ROLES
Roles in Bullying is a social process that involves many people, each of whom plays a specific function (Cornell & Bradshaw, 2015; Salmivalli et al., 1996). Participant roles were the term initially used to describe this phenomenon by Salmivalli et al. in 1996. Bullying is an issue that affects many people than just the victim and the bully. There are other kids in the area who participate in bullying. She stated that in addition to the bully and victim, additional students who are frequently involved in bullying are the outsider (also known as the silent approver), the bully's supporter, the bully's assistant, and the victim's advocate (Salmivalli et al., 1996). Bystanders are crucial because they can be influenced more easily than the bully (Salmivalli, 2014). Students can self-evaluate their own behavior and how they would respond in a bullying situation. They have a moderate awareness of their own roles in bullying situations (Salmivalli et al., 2011). Self-estimations, however, often tended to overestimate prosocial and/or passive behavior, which is more socially desirable, and
3208
underestimate violent behavior, which is referred to as a "self-serving attribution bias" (Salmivalli et al., 1996, p. 11).
2.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS RELATED TO BULLYING
Bullying victims furthermore struggle with social-emotional integration and functioning. In particular, they frequently experience loneliness, have more trouble making friends, and have worse interactions with their classmates (Nansel et al., 2001). Bullying can have detrimental effects on a person's physical health both at the time of the bullying and over time, in addition to the previously noted detrimental effects on psychological health, academic performance, and social-emotional skills (Vaillancourt, 2015).
Furthermore, these adverse consequences are not temporary. Low economic circumstances, fewer social connections, anxiety disorders, psychological general health, impaired cognitive performance, and decreased well-being (Takizawa, Maughan, & Arseneault, 2014). However, there appears to be little extant research on the connection between victimization experiences and favorable psychological states. In contrast to quality of life, which frequently refers to indicators that are external, quantifiable, and frequently deficit-focused, a few studies have examined the effects of bullying/victimization on life satisfaction, a self-evaluation of one's life. One study looked at how bullying affects children's quality of life and how these kids picture a day when their quality psychological lives (Kvarme, Helseth, Saeteren, & Natvig, 2010)
2.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
1. Low Self-Esteem: Low self-esteem is a psychological factor that is associated with an increased risk of bullying victimization. Children with lower self-esteem may be more vulnerable and have difficulties in effectively coping with bullying situations (Graham & Juvonen, 1998).
2. Anxiety and Depression: Psychological distress, including symptoms of anxiety and depression, is commonly found among victims of bullying. Being exposed to persistent bullying can have detrimental effects on the mental well-being of children (Arseneault et al., 2006).
3. Internalizing Problems: Internalizing problems, such as social withdrawal, loneliness, and feelings of sadness, are psychological factors associated with bullying victimization. Victims may internalize the negative experiences, leading to emotional and psychological difficulties (Hodges & Perry, 1999).
4. Coping Strategies: The way children cope with bullying situations can influence their vulnerability to victimization. Ineffective coping strategies, such as avoidance or withdrawal, can make individuals more susceptible to continued victimization (Salmivalli, 2010).
5. Perceived Social Support: Perceived social support, including support from family, friends, and teachers, is a psychological factor that can influence the impact of bullying victimization. Higher levels of social support can act as a protective factor and buffer the negative effects of bullying (O'Connell et al., 2014).
2.4 SOCIAL FACTORS RELATED TO BULLYING
This model's first key component focuses on social factors such socioeconomic position, family, school, and neighborhood. Because school bullies are likely to eventually bully their family members, which can aggravate domestic violence and damage future generations, society is the ultimate and worst victim of bullying (Farrington, 1991). In their analysis, Children from households with authoritarian, antagonistic, and rejecting parents are more likely to experience abuse, according to Batsche and Knoff (1994) a bully Children who come from large families are more prone to bully than to be bullied (Ma, 2001). Additionally, pupils who are bully victims who are overprotected by their parents at home.
Another significant aspect affecting student bullying is parent engagement and awareness. Ma (2001) contends that parents are more likely to stop their kids from engaging in bullying if they are aware of the problem and actively involved in their children's education. Additionally, his research demonstrates that preventing bullying through active parental involvement is more successful than assisting victims. Espelage, Bosworth, and Simon's (2000) study's findings show a positive correlation between bullying and parental physical discipline, time spent alone without an adult supervising, harmful peer influences, and neighborhood safety concerns.
3209
School is a significant factor that impacts bullying as well. Bullying is observed to occur more frequently in schools than on routes to or from schools (Olweus, 1994). Bullying and harassment are encouraged by a hostile school atmosphere (Hazler, 1994). Bullying incidences go down when schools have stricter policies against bullying. Regarding the impact of the school context, however, various findings emerge. For example, Olweus (1994) and Whitney and Smith (1993) found that school size and class size do not affect bullying, whereas Ma (2001) argues that school size is a factor, correlating more to bullies than bully victims. He found that small school students "could be bullied, but they could bully others a lot more" (p. 366). Since the research findings are uneven, no typical patterns can be established regarding bullying in relation to school location and socioeconomic status (SES). Ma (2001) contends that bullying problems are unrelated to school mean SES. In contrast, some studies (Whitney & Smith, 1993; Olweus, 1994) reveal that bullying episodes are more common in small towns than in big cities. Bullying occurrences are typically lower in schools with higher mean SES (Whitney & Smith, 1993). According to Whitney and Smith (1993), bullying is not influenced by the racial and ethnic makeup of the student body. Eslea and Mukhtar (2000) show, however, that bullying has a connection to culture and/or religion. Therefore, it's unclear if racial and ethnic factors influence bullying.
2.5 SOCIAL FACTORS
1. School Climate: The overall climate of the school, including the presence of supportive relationships, positive teacher-student interactions, and a sense of belonging, plays a crucial role in bullying victimization. Schools with a positive and inclusive climate are associated with lower levels of bullying (Espelage & Swearer, 2003).
2. Peer Influence: Peer relationships and interactions significantly impact bullying victimization. The behavior and attitudes of peers can either reinforce or discourage bullying. Peers who support or engage in bullying behaviors contribute to a higher risk of victimization (Salmivalli, Lagerspetz, Bjorkqvist, Osterman, & Kaukiainen, 1996).
3. Bystander Behavior: The behavior of bystanders is an important social factor related to bullying victimization. Bystanders who actively intervene or support the victim can help reduce bullying incidents. Conversely, passive bystanders who do not take action may inadvertently contribute to the perpetuation of bullying (Craig & Pepler, 2003).
4. Parental Involvement: The level of parental involvement and support can impact bullying victimization. Parents who are actively engaged in their child's life, communicate openly, and provide guidance can help protect against bullying (Jiang, Walsh, Wei, & Wei, 2016).
5. Community Factors: The broader community environment, such as neighborhood safety and community norms, can also influence bullying victimization. Communities with a strong sense of social cohesion and norms against violence may have lower rates of bullying (Bradshaw, Sawyer, & O'Brennan, 2007).
2.6 THE ROLE OF THE FAMILY IN BULLYING VICTIMIZATION
The role of the family in bullying victimization is an important aspect to consider. Here are some key points.
1. Parenting Styles: Different parenting styles can impact a child's vulnerability to bullying victimization. Research suggests that authoritative parenting, characterized by warmth, support, and clear expectations, is associated with lower levels of bullying victimization (Wang, Berry, & Swearer, 2013).
2. Family Communication: Open and supportive communication within the family can act as a protective factor against bullying victimization. When children feel comfortable discussing their experiences with their parents, they are more likely to receive guidance and support (Rigby & Johnson, 2006).
3. Parental Awareness and Involvement: Parents who are actively involved in their child's life and demonstrate awareness of their social interactions are better positioned to identify signs of bullying victimization. This involvement allows parents to provide necessary support and interventions (Pepler, Jiang, Craig, & Connolly, 2008).
4. Family Relationships: Positive and supportive family relationships contribute to resilience in
3210
children and can serve as a protective factor against bullying victimization. A strong family bond can provide emotional support and help children develop coping strategies (Holt et al., 2014).
5. Parental Modeling: Parents play a role in modeling appropriate behavior and attitudes towards others. When parents demonstrate prosocial behaviors and teach empathy and respect, children are more likely to exhibit positive social interactions and lower levels of bullying victimization (Miller et al., 2013).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The general objective of this chapter is to explain the process of data collection, data analysis and research implementation. The research is quantitative in nature and descriptive survey was used for the purpose of collecting data. This chapter focuses on the tools and techniques used to evaluate research data and determine whether a situation is true and real. In this chapter, the researcher also gave a thorough explanation of the research design procedures. Included the information on the sample and the participants.
3.1 POPULATION
The population of this study was students of public elementary school from rural areas of Islamabad.
3.2 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY The study was delimited to
• Private elementary school
• Rural area of Islamabad
• Elementary level (grade 7th and 8th)
3.3 SAMPLE
The sample of the study was 285 students from the targeted population.
3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Simple random sampling technique was used for selecting the sample from whole population. As it had less chance of biasness and all the individuals had equal chance of being selected.
3.5 RESEARCH DESIGN
A descriptive research design was used in this study. In terms of study habits, introverts and extroverts, time duration, and friends and social connections, the impact of bullying victimizations on elementary children' social and psychological development is investigated.
3.6 INSTRUMENTATION
Study completed a variety of self-report measures including surveys assessing traditional bullying victimization (Student Survey of Bullying Behavior - Revised 2 [SSBB-R2]; (Varjas et al., 2006), cyberbullying victimization (Cyberbullying and Online Aggression Survey Instrument; Hinduja & Patchin, 2015), bullying mindset (Yeager et al., 2011), covitality (Furlong et al., 2013), school climate (Georgia Department of Education et al., 2014), and student's behavioral and emotional functioning (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire [SDQ]; Goodman, 1997). the bullying victimization, social and psychological factors of bullying covitality, and school climate measures will be utilized for the current research as they will be the primary interest. 3.8 DATA ANALYSIS
The calculated data was analyzed by using statistical software (SPSS). Mean, frequency and percentage was used for presenting data in graphs. Bar chart was used for representing qualitative data and pie chart and histogram was used to represent quantitative data. Descriptive statistics (means, frequencies, standard deviations, ranges) was calculated for all demographic variables. These analyses allowed for assessment of responses among the different groups of participants present in the study.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter deals with the analysis of data. In this chapter, the researcher sought to analyze the data, interpretation, findings, discussion, summary, conclusion, and recommendation, and the data collected through a complete scientific process after collection, the data was analyzed on Statistical Software SPSS with the help of MS Excel sheet. In this chapter, the analysis of data is presented in
3211
graphical form with percentages, mean, and standard deviation mostly. Data is collected from elementary schools in Islamabad and 285 sample sizes were drawn out for this study with the use of a simple random sampling technique.
Figure 4.17: Have you bullied by boys or girls?
19.90% 21j20%
25.00%
20.00% 16 .80%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00% 1
0.00%
By
several
girls
580% 14.90%
^ | J ^ 1035%
By Byboth Mainly I have Mainly several boys and by 1 girl not been by 1 boy boys girls bullied
The above-mentioned figure shows students' responses about whether they have been bullied by boys or girls. Respondents with the percentage of 16.80% said that they were bullied by several girls, 19.90% said they were bullied by several boys, 21.20% of the respondents said that they were bullied by both boys and girls, 11.90% of the respondents said that they were bullied by mainly 1 girl, 19.35% said they have not been bullied by anyone while 14.90% of the respondents said that they have been bullied by mainly 1 boy. At the last, it is concluded that the majority of the respondents said that they were bullied by both boys and girls.
Figure 4.18: Have you told anyone that you have been bullied in the past couple of months
25
20 15.9%
15
10 5 0
20.2%
2.6% 2.3% 33%
4.6%
7.3%
2%
4%
* * J? S Jt .Jt .f S S J? ✓
«r ^ </ .as* <f <f ¿A ^ ^
^ y #
-if
jf
The above-mentioned figure shows students' responses about the feeling that they shared with others. They were asked whether they shared their feeling with others or not. 15.9% of the respondents said that they shared with no one, 20.2% of the respondents answered that were shared their feeling with their class teacher, 19.2% said that they shared with their friends, 12.9% did not share with anyone, 2.6% shared with the school principal, 2.3% shared with a psychologist, 4.6% with their parents, 7.3% shared with everyone, 2% with their sister and remains with their brothers. It showed that the majority of the respondents shared their feeling after being bullied by their class teacher and friends and the teacher did not take any action for them. Figure 4.19: Student responses about the self-esteem of the students
3212
45.00% 40.00% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00%
Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly Disagree Agree
The above-mentioned figure shows students' responses about their self-esteem in the classroom. Students were asked with the statement that they say know when someone wants them to do things that they know are dangerous also they were asked about the feelings of other people. 6.30% of the respondents strongly disagreed about these statements, 23.20% disagreed, 12.60%were undecided while 44.20% agreed and lastly, 13.70% of students disagreed. It is concluded that the majority of the respondents said that sometimes they were asked about wrong things they are not wanted to do and also they are known about the feelings of other people. They were asked that would they feel something good or bad by looking at someone's expressions or does the actions of other people effects them or not.
Figure 4.20: Students' Responses to Behavior and Attitude Behavior & Attitude
4 3 2 1 0
3.65
3.67
55
3.47
08
ba38
ba39
ba40
Mean
□ Std. Deviation
The above figure showed students' responses about their behavior and attitude toward bullying. In the first question, they were asked if people are different than they are and in the second statement their opinion was obtained about thinking through the possible good and bad consequences or results of different choices before they make a decision. In statement three they were asked about having stolen and destroyed another student's property.in above figure mean and standard deviation shows students' responses about three statements.
3213
Figure 4.21: Students' responses about extracurricular activities in school. Extracurricular Activities
EX35
EX34 i!
EX33 l_
EX32 i!
EX31 l_
0
□ Std. Deviation □ Mean
The above figure showed students' responses about different extracurricular activities. They were asked about how they were involved in extracurricular activities and also spent hours helping others. They were asked about the good grades that they were obtain in the last years and about their leave in the last months as well as their afraid of being bullied by other students in their school. The above bar chart showed mean and standard deviation of the data. The more the mean is the more accurate results are there and the less the standard deviation is the more results are good for the present study.
FINDINGS
The study findings I based on its objectives the first objective of the study is ... To find out impacts of bullying victimization on elementary students.
The objective of finding out the impacts of bullying victimization on elementary students has yielded several important findings. Here are some key findings that have emerged from research in this area:
1. Negative emotional and psychological effects: Bullying victimization has been consistently linked to negative emotional and psychological outcomes in elementary students. Victims often experience higher levels of anxiety, depression, loneliness, and low self-esteem. They may also exhibit symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to the ongoing trauma of bullying.
2. Academic difficulties: Bullying victimization can have a significant impact on students' academic performance. Victims may experience difficulties concentrating in class, have lower motivation to learn, and may even avoid attending school altogether. These academic challenges can have long-term implications for their educational attainment and future opportunities.
3. Physical health problems: Victims of bullying may also suffer from various physical health issues. They may experience frequent headaches, stomachaches, and sleep disturbances. Chronic stress resulting from bullying can weaken the immune system, making victims more susceptible to illnesses.
4. Social withdrawal and isolation: Bullying victimization often leads to social withdrawal and isolation in elementary students. Victims may have difficulty forming positive relationships with peers, leading to feelings of loneliness and social exclusion. The lack of social support can further exacerbate their vulnerability to ongoing victimization.
The second objective of the study is..
To explore how much time, do students victimized by others.
The objective of exploring how much time students victimized by others spend in the victim role has yielded some important findings. While specific research studies may provide more precise figures, here are some general findings and patterns related to the time spent as victims of bullying:
,°7
3.95
L37
3.27 3.46 3.53
.45
3.18
4
1
2
3
3214
1. Duration of victimization: Bullying victimization can vary in terms of duration. Some students may experience brief episodes of victimization, while others may endure prolonged periods of being targeted by others. The duration of victimization can range from days to weeks, months, or even years.
2. Recurring victimization: For many students, bullying victimization is not a one-time occurrence but rather a repeated experience. They may be subjected to multiple incidents of bullying over an extended period. The frequency and duration of victimization episodes can vary among individuals.
3. Continuum of victimization: Research has shown that bullying victimization can fall along a continuum, ranging from occasional incidents to chronic and severe victimization. Some students may experience sporadic victimization, while others may face persistent and intense bullying over time.
4. Changes over time: The time spent in the victim role can change throughout a student's elementary school experience. They may move in and out of the victim role, experiencing periods of relative respite followed by renewed victimization. Factors such as changes in social dynamics, class composition, or intervention efforts can influence these fluctuations.
The third objective of the study is....
To find out the difference in students of bullying victimization by gender.
The objective of finding out the difference in students of bullying victimization by gender has led to
several important findings. Here are some key findings that have emerged from research in this area:
1. Prevalence of victimization: Studies consistently show that both boys and girls can experience bullying victimization. However, research suggests that the prevalence and types of bullying may differ between genders. Boys are more likely to experience physical bullying, while girls may be more prone to relational or verbal bullying.
2. Forms of victimization: While both boys and girls can experience various forms of bullying, research indicates some gender-specific patterns. Boys are more likely to be physically bullied, such as being hit, pushed, or physically threatened. On the other hand, girls may experience more relational aggression, such as social exclusion, spreading rumors, or manipulating social relationships.
3. Reporting rates: Research suggests that girls tend to report bullying victimization more frequently than boys. Girls may be more inclined to seek help from adults, teachers, or parents when they experience bullying. In contrast, boys may be more reluctant to report bullying due to concerns about stigma, appearing weak, or the potential for increased victimization.
4. Impact on mental health: Bullying victimization can have negative effects on the mental health of both boys and girls. However, studies indicate that girls may be more susceptible to the emotional and psychological impacts of bullying. Girls who experience victimization may be at higher risk for developing symptoms of anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem compared to boys.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Certainly! Here are some recommendations regarding social and psychological factors related to
bullying victimization at the elementary level:
1. Promote a positive and inclusive school climate: Schools should prioritize creating a safe and supportive environment where all students feel valued and respected. Implement strategies such as anti-bullying campaigns, character education programs, and peer support initiatives to foster positive peer relationships and discourage bullying behaviors.
2. Foster social-emotional learning: Incorporate social-emotional learning programs into the curriculum to help students develop essential skills like empathy, self-awareness, and conflict resolution. These programs can enhance students' ability to understand and manage their emotions, build positive relationships, and navigate social situations effectively, reducing the likelihood of becoming bullying victims.
3215
3. Encourage positive peer relationships: Implement cooperative learning activities and promote teamwork to facilitate positive interactions among students. Encouraging collaboration and fostering a sense of belonging within the classroom can help reduce instances of peer rejection and create a supportive social environment.
4. Provide social skills training: Offer social skills training programs that teach students effective communication, assertiveness, and problem-solving skills. By equipping students with the tools to navigate social interactions confidently, they can better respond to bullying situations and assert their boundaries, reducing their vulnerability to victimization.
5. Enhance self-esteem and resilience: Implement interventions that promote self-esteem and resilience among students. This can include mentoring programs, individual or group counseling, and activities that foster self-confidence and positive self-perception. Strengthening students' self-esteem and resilience can make them less attractive targets for bullies and better equipped to cope with bullying situations.
6. Involve parents and caregivers: Collaborate with parents and caregivers to raise awareness about bullying, its impact, and strategies to address it. Encourage open lines of communication and provide resources for parents to support their children's social and emotional development. Parental involvement and support play a crucial role in preventing and addressing bullying at the elementary level.
7. Train teachers and staff: Provide professional development and training to teachers and school staff on identifying, preventing, and responding to bullying. Equipping educators with the knowledge and skills to address bullying effectively can create a proactive and supportive environment that minimizes the risk of victimization.
8. Implement comprehensive policies: Develop and enforce comprehensive anti-bullying policies that clearly define expectations, consequences, and reporting procedures. Ensure that policies address both social and psychological factors related to bullying victimization and are consistently communicated and implemented throughout the school.
These recommendations, when implemented collectively, can help mitigate the social and psychological factors that contribute to bullying victimization at the elementary level. By taking a comprehensive approach and involving various stakeholders, schools can foster a positive and nurturing environment that promotes the well-being and safety of all students. Recommendations for future researchers
Here are some recommendations for future researchers regarding social and psychological factors related to bullying victimization:
1. Longitudinal studies: Conduct longitudinal studies that follow children over an extended period to explore how social and psychological factors related to bullying victimization evolve and interact over time. This approach can provide valuable insights into the long-term effects of these factors and their impact on children's well-being.
2. Qualitative research: Incorporate qualitative research methods, such as interviews or focus groups, to gain a deeper understanding of the experiences and perspectives of both bullying victims and perpetrators. Qualitative approaches can provide rich and nuanced insights into the social and psychological dynamics involved in bullying situations.
3. Intersectionality: Explore the intersectionality of social and psychological factors with other dimensions of identity, such as race, ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic status. Investigate how these intersecting factors influence bullying victimization experiences, as well as the potential unique challenges faced by individuals with multiple marginalized identities.
4. School climate and contextual factors: Investigate the influence of broader contextual factors, such as school climate, community characteristics, and cultural norms, on bullying victimization. Understanding how these factors interact with social and psychological factors can help develop more comprehensive strategies to prevent and address bullying.
5. Technology and cyberbullying: Explore the role of technology, social media, and online platforms in bullying victimization. Investigate the interplay between offline and online experiences and the unique social and psychological factors associated with cyberbullying.
3216
6. Protective factors: Examine protective factors that can mitigate the impact of social and psychological factors on bullying victimization. Investigate resilience, social support, self-efficacy, and other positive factors that may buffer against the negative effects of bullying experiences.
7. Intervention effectiveness: Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions targeting social and psychological factors related to bullying victimization. Conduct rigorous evaluations of prevention and intervention programs to determine their impact on reducing victimization and promoting positive social and psychological outcomes.
8. Cross-cultural research: Conduct cross-cultural studies to explore how social and psychological factors related to bullying victimization vary across different cultural contexts. Investigate cultural norms, values, and socialization practices that may influence the prevalence and dynamics of bullying.
9. Teacher and parent perspectives: Investigate the perspectives and experiences of teachers and parents regarding social and psychological factors related to bullying victimization. Understand their role in identifying and addressing bullying and explore strategies to enhance their effectiveness in supporting children who are victims of bullying.
10.Multilevel approaches: Adopt a multilevel approach that considers factors at individual, interpersonal, institutional, and societal levels. Analyze the interplay between these different levels and identify opportunities for comprehensive interventions and policies.
By pursuing these research directions, future researchers can contribute to a deeper understanding of the social and psychological factors related to bullying victimization. This knowledge can inform the development of evidence-based interventions, policies, and practices aimed at preventing and addressing bullying effectively. SUMMARY
Bullying victimization at the elementary level is influenced by a combination of social and psychological factors. Socially, peer rejection and the presence of hierarchical social structures contribute to the likelihood of becoming a target for bullies. Children who are socially rejected or occupy a lower position in the social hierarchy are more vulnerable to bullying. Psychologically, low self-esteem and poor social skills increase the risk of bullying victimization. Children with low self-esteem are more attractive targets for bullies, as they may display behaviors that make them appear vulnerable. Similarly, children with poor social skills struggle to navigate social interactions and may have difficulty defending themselves or seeking help. Understanding and addressing these factors is crucial for effective intervention and prevention strategies. Promoting a positive and inclusive school climate, fostering social-emotional learning, and encouraging positive peer relationships can mitigate social factors related to bullying. Providing social skills training, enhancing self-esteem and resilience, and involving parents and caregivers are key in addressing the psychological factors associated with victimization. Future researchers should consider conducting longitudinal studies, qualitative research, and exploring the intersectionality of bullying victimization with other dimensions of identity. Additionally, investigating the influence of school climate and contextual factors, technology and cyberbullying, protective factors, intervention effectiveness, cross-cultural variations, and multilevel approaches can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the social and psychological factors related to bullying victimization. By addressing these factors and implementing evidence-based strategies, educators, parents, and policymakers can work together to create safe and supportive environments that reduce the prevalence of bullying and support the well-being of elementary school children.
REFERENCES
[1] Ananiadou, K., & Smith, P. K. (2002). Legal requirements and nationally circulated materials against school bullying in European countries. Criminal Justice, 2(4), 471-491.
[2] Arseneault, L., Bowes, L., & Shakoor, S. (2010). Bullying victimization in youths and mental health problems: 'Much ado about nothing'? Psychological Medicine, 40(5), 717-729.
3217
[3] Arseneault, L., Walsh, E., Trzesniewski, K., Newcombe, R., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2006). Bullying victimization uniquely contributes to adjustment problems in young children: A nationally representative cohort study. Pediatrics, 118(1), 130-138.
[4] Baldry, A. C., & Winkel, F. W. (2003). Direct and vicarious victimization at school and at home as risk factors for suicidal cognition among Italian adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 26(6), 703-716.
[5] Barker, E. D., Arseneault, L., Brendgen, M., Fontaine, N., & Maughan, B. (2008). Joint development of bullying and victimization in adolescence: Relations to delinquency and self-harm. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(9), 1030-1038.
[6] Bauer, N. S., Lozano, P., & Rivara, F. P. (2007). The effectiveness of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program in public middle schools: A controlled trial. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40(3), 266-274.
[7] Bradshaw, C. P., O'Brennan, L. M., & Sawyer, A. L. (2007). Examining variation in attitudes toward aggressive retaliation and perceptions of safety among bullies, victims, and bully/victims. Professional School Counseling, 11(1), 1-14.
[8] Bradshaw, C. P., Sawyer, A. L., & O'Brennan, L. M. (2007). Bullying and peer victimization at school: Perceptual differences between students and school staff. School Psychology Review, 36(3), 361-382.
[9] Bradshaw, C. P., Sawyer, A. L., & O'Brennan, L. M. (2007). Bullying and peer victimization at school: Perceptual differences between students and school staff. School Psychology Review, 36(3), 361-382.
[10] Clarke-Stewart, A., & Dunn, J. (Eds.). (2006). Families count: Effects on child and adolescent development. Cambridge University Press.
[11] Craig, W. M., & Pepler, D. (2003). Identifying and targeting risk for involvement in bullying and victimization. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 48(9), 577-582.
[12] Crick, N. R., Casas, J. F., & Ku, H. C. (1999). Relational and physical forms of peer victimization in preschool. Developmental psychology, 35(2), 376.
[13] Demaray, M. K., & Malecki, C. K. (2003). Perceptions of the frequency and importance of social support by students classified as victims, bullies, and bully/victims in an urban middle school. School Psychology Review, 32(3), 471-489.
[14] Dime, B. M., Stankovie, D., & Doric, V. (2018). Bullying perpetration and victimization among adolescents: The role of self-esteem and emotion regulation. Current Psychology, 37(3), 640648.
[15] Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250(4988), 1678-1683.
[16] Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (1998). Does low self-regard invite victimization? Developmental Psychology, 34(2), 299.
[17] Espelage, D. L., & Swearer, S. M. (2003). Research on school bullying and victimization: What have we learned and where do we go from here? School Psychology Review, 32(3), 365-383.
[18] Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007). Re-victimization patterns in a national longitudinal sample of children and youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(5), 479-502.
[19] Graham, S., & Juvonen, J. (1998). Self-esteem and peer victimization in middle school: A hierarchical analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(4), 623-627.
[20] Hanish, L. D., Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., Fabes, R. A., Martin, C. L., & Denning, D. (2004). Bullying among young children: The influence of peers and teachers. In D. L. Espelage & S. M. Swearer (Eds.), Bullying in American schools: A social-ecological perspective on prevention and intervention (pp. 141-160). Routledge.
[21] Hawker, D. S., & Boulton, M. J. (2000). Twenty years' research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41(4), 441-455.
3218
[22] Heim, C., Newport, D. J., Heit, S., Graham, Y. P., Wilcox, M., Bonsall, R., ... & Nemeroff, C. B. (2000). Pituitary-adrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood. Jama, 284(5), 592-597.
[23] Herba, C. M., Ferdinand, R. F., Stijnen, T., Veenstra, R., Oldehinkel, A. J., Ormel, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2008). Victimisation and suicide ideation in the TRAILS study: specific vulnerabilities of victims. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(8), 867-876.
[24] Hodges, E. V., & Perry, D. G. (1999). Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(4), 677.
[25] Hodges, E. V., & Perry, D. G. (1999). Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(4), 677-685.
[26] Holt, M. K., Kantor, G. K., & Finkelhor, D. (2014). Parent/child concordance about bullying involvement and family characteristics related to bullying and peer victimization. Journal of School Violence, 13(3), 301-325.
[27] Jaffee, S. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Taylor, A. (2004). Physical maltreatment victim to antisocial child: evidence of an environmentally mediated process. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(1), 44.
[28] Janssen, I., Krabbendam, L., Bak, M., Hanssen, M., Vollebergh, W., de Graaf, R., & van Os, J. (2004). Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 109(1), 38-45.
[29] Jiang, D., Walsh, S., Wei, H., & Wei, M. (2016). Parental involvement and child bullying victimization among primary school students in China: The mediating role of school engagement. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(10), 2994-3002.
[30] Jiménez-Barbero, J. A., Ruiz-Hernández, J. A., Llor-Zaragoza, L., & Pérez-García, M. (2019). Bullying in elementary schools: The role of individual characteristics, family, and school factors. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1542.
[31] Jones, L. M., Manstead, A. S., & Livingstone, A. G. (2011). Ganging up or sticking together? Group processes and children's responses to relational victimization by peers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(8), 888-895.
[32] Kaltiala-Heino, R., Rimpela, M., Rantanen, P., & Rimpela, A. (2000). Bullying at school—an indicator of adolescents at risk for mental disorders. Journal of Adolescence, 23(6), 661-674.
[33] Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2013). Psychological, physical, and academic correlates of cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(1 Suppl), S13-S20.
[34] Ladd, G. W., & Kochenderfer-Ladd, B. (2002). Identifying victims of peer aggression from early to middle childhood: analysis of cross-informant data for concordance, estimation of relational adjustment, prevalence of victimization, and characteristics of identified victims. Psychological Assessment, 14( 1), 74.
[35] Lataster, T., Van Os, J., Drukker, M., Henquet, C., Feron, F., Gunther, N., & Myin-Germeys, I. (2006). Childhood victimisation and developmental expression of non-clinical delusional ideation and hallucinatory experiences. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41(6), 423-428.
[36] Marsh, H. W., Parada, R. H., Ayotte, V., & Régner, I. (2014). Self-esteem as a mediator and moderator of the relationship between social support and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 37(5), 475-484.
[37] Miller, P. A., Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Shell, R. (2013). Relations of moral reasoning and vicarious emotion to young children's prosocial behavior toward peers and adults. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 154-163.
[38] Mynard, H., & Joseph, S. (1997). Bully/victim problems and their association with Eysenck's personality dimensions in 8 to 13 year olds. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67(1), 51-54.
[39] Nansel, T. R., Craig, W., Overpeck, M. D., Saluja, G., & Ruan, W. J. (2004). Cross-national consistency in the relationship between bullying behaviors and psychosocial adjustment. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 158(8), 730-736.
3219
[40] Newcomb, A. F., Bukowski, W. M., & Pattee, L. (1993). Children's peer relations: A meta-analytic review of popular, rejected, neglected, controversial, and average sociometric status. Psychological Bulletin, 113(1), 99-128.
[41] O'Connell, P., Pepler, D., & Craig, W. (2014). Peer involvement in bullying: Insights and challenges for intervention. Journal of Adolescence, 37(3), 271-284
[42] Oliver, C., & Candappa, M. (2003). Tackling bullying: Listening to the views of children and young people. Nottingham: DfES.
[43] Olweus, D. (1994). Bullying at school: basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35(7), 1171-1190.
[44] Olweus, D. (2013). School bullying: Development and some important challenges. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 751-780.
[45] Pepler, D. J., & Craig, W. M. (1995). A peek behind the fence: Naturalistic observations of aggressive children with remote audiovisual recording. Developmental Psychology, 31(4), 548.
[46] Pepler, D., Jiang, D., Craig, W., & Connolly, J. (2008). Developmental trajectories of bullying and associated factors. Child Development, 79(2), 325-338.
[47] Pollak, S. D. (2003). Experience dependent affective learning and risk for psychopathology in children. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1008( 1), 102-111.
[48] Rhee, S. H., & Waldman, I. D. (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: a meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 128(3), 490.
[49] Rigby, K., & Johnson, B. (2006). Expressed readiness of Australian parents to act on bullying. Educational Psychology, 26(6), 787-797.
[50] Ranning, J. A., Sourander, A., Kumpulainen, K., Tamminen, T., Niemela, S., Moilanen, I., ... & Almqvist, F. (2009). Cross-informant agreement about bullying and victimization among eight-year-olds: whose information best predicts psychiatric caseness 10-15 years later? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 44(1), 15-22.
[51] Salmivalli, C. (2010). Bullying and the peer group: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(2), 112-120.
[52] Salmivalli, C. (2010). Bullying and the peer group: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(2), 112-120.
[53] Salmivalli, C., & Peets, K. (2009). Bullies, victims, and bully-victim relationships in middle childhood and early adolescence. Handbook of Peer Interactions, Relationships, and Groups, 322-340.
[54] Salmivalli, C., Lagerspetz, K., Bjorkqvist, K., Osterman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1996). Bullying as a group process: Participant roles and their relations to social status within the group. Aggressive Behavior, 22(1), 1-15.
[55] Salmivalli, C., Voeten, M., & Poskiparta, E. (2011). Bystanders matter: Associations between reinforcing, defending, and the frequency of bullying behavior in classrooms. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40(5), 668-676.
[56] Schreier, A., Wolke, D., Thomas, K., Horwood, J., Hollis, C., Gunnell, D., ... & Harrison, G. (2009). Prospective study of peer victimization in childhood and psychotic symptoms in a nonclinical population at age 12 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66(5), 527-536.
[57] Tolan, P. H. (2004). International trends in bullying and children's health: giving them due consideration. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 158(8), 831-832.
[58] Totura, C. M. W., Green, A. E., Karver, M. S., & Gesten, E. L. (2009). Multiple informants in the assessment of psychological, behavioral, and academic correlates of bullying and victimization in middle school. Journal of Adolescence, 32(2), 193-211.
[59] Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2011). Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7(1), 27-56.
[60] Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., Zijlstra, B. J., De Winter, A. F., Verhulst, F. C., & Ormel, J. (2007). The dyadic nature of bullying and victimization: Testing a dual-perspective theory. Child Development, 78(6), 1843-1854.
3220
[61] Verhulst, F. C., & Boomsma, D. I. (2003). Genetic and environmental contributions to stability and change in children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(10), 1212-1220.
[62] Wang, J., Berry, B., & Swearer, S. M. (2013). The critical role of parents in preventing and responding to bullying. Journal of School Violence, 12(1), 15-29.
[63] Whitney, I., & Smith, P. K. (1993). A survey of the nature and extent of bullying in junior/middle and secondary schools. Educational Research, 35( 1), 3-25.
[64] Wolke, D., Woods, S., Stanford, K., & Schulz, H. (2001). Bullying and victimization of primary school children in England and Germany: Prevalence and school factors. British Journal of Psychology, 92(4), 673-696.
[65] Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Wiley-Blackwell.
[66] Espelage, D. L., & Swearer, S. M. (2004). Research on school bullying and victimization: What have we learned and where do we go from here? School psychology review, 33(3), 365383.
[67] Modecki, K. L., Minchin, J., Harbaugh, A. G., Guerra, N. G., & Runions, K. C. (2014). Bullying prevalence across contexts: A meta-analysis measuring cyber and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(5), 602-611.
[68] Gini, G., & Pozzoli, T. (2009). Association between bullying and psychosomatic problems: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 123(3), 1059-1065.
[69] Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2010). Bullying, cyberbullying, and suicide. Archives of suicide research, 14(3), 206-221.
[70] Hawker, D. S., damp; Boulton, M. J. (2000). Twenty years' research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 41(4), 441-455.
[71] Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., & Skinner, K. (2002). Children's coping strategies: Moderators of the effects of peer victimization? Developmental Psychology, 38(2), 267-278.
[72] Reijntjes, A., Kamphuis, J. H., Prinzie, P., & Telch, M. J. (2010). Peer victimization and internalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Child abuse & neglect, 34(4), 244-252.
[73] Wang, J., lannotti, R. J., & Luk, J. W. (2012). Bullying victimization among underweight and overweight US youth: Differential associations for boys and girls. Journal of Adolescent Health,51(6), 677-683.
[74] Juvonen, J., & Graham, S. (2014). Bullying in schools: The power of bullies and the plight of victims. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 159-185
[75] Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Wiley. Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2011). Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7( 1), 27-
[76] Hawker, D. S., & Boulton, M. J. (2000). Twenty years' research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(4), 441-455.
3221
