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factor in searching for a new model of statehood in the region. Such is the conclusion of most researchers of the problems of the Muslim world.
Author of the abstract - Valentina Schensnovich
2018.03.014. OLGA BIBIKOVA. ROLE OF SUNNI AND SHIA CONTROVERSIES OF THE SITUATION IN THE MIDDLE EAST // "Ekonomicheskie sotsialno-politicheskie i etnokonfessionalnye problem afro-aziatskih stran," Moscow, 2017, IOS RAS, P. 175-188.
Keywords: Shiism, Sunnism, Imamah, religious differences, political rivalry.
Olga Bibikova,
PhD(Hist.)
Institute of Oriental Studies, RAS
The author analyzes evolution of Sunni and Shia controversies the Middle East. Rivalry of Shias and Sunnis goes back to Islam roots, which began after the death of the prophet. The majority of Sunnis, i.e. adherents of the orthodox line, in the world is about 90%, Shias - 10% of Muslim population of the planet. Accurate data on the total number of Muslims in the world don't exist, but it is thought to be - 1.5 billion. According to data of 2002 24 million of residents of Iraq 60% of the population (Arabs and Kurds) profess Islam of Shia Muslim sense, 35% are Sunnites (Arabs and Kurds), 3% are Christians.
Birthplace of Shia Islam is Iraq. Shias pilgrims visit holy sites on the territory of this country - Nedzhef city where there is a tomb of Ali, the first imam of Shias, cousin and good- brother of the Prophet, and Karbala where in 680 the Prophet's grandson Hussein of Ben Ali was killed, and then Iranian Mashhad, where the 8th Shia Muslim imam Reza is buried. The fate of imam Ali al-Reza (the Persian name - Reza) demonstrates that at the end of the VIII century Sunnis and Shias were at enmity. According to the
legend, Reza was poisoned by the son of the Abbasid Caliph Haruna al-Rashid. Nedzhef is the center of Shia spiritual education in Iraq. After 1979 there is a residence of the head of Iraqi Shias here. However originally (at the end of the VII century) there were a few Shias in Iraq. Amplification of Shias happened later - during Safavids' rule and especially after their overthrow. The dynasty of Safavids which originated from dervishes made Shia Islam the state ideology of Persia. In 1722 the dynasty of Safavids was overthrown and in Iran the period of turmoil started which implicated emigration of a part of Shias to the neighboring Iraq. First of all, representatives of Shia Muslim clergy left who continued their activity in Iraq. As a result of propaganda activities of Shia Muslim dai the number of Shias increased in Iraq. During that period the Shia Islam was accepted generally by Bedouin tribes proceeding with settled way of life. Later Shia Islam found support among settled population while remaining portion of bedouins kept commitment to Sunni Islam.
After the proclamation of Shia Islam as a state ideology of Iran contradictions between Shias and Sunnis became intensified. Different approach to a question of who can be at the head of Ummah is the centerpiece of these contradictions. The problem of the power led the Muslim world to split. Efforts of Shia Muslim theologians on the basis of Hadith it was developed the doctrine about Imamah which "in virtue of sacred law" belongs to 'Ali blood.
Contradictions between Sunni and Shia Muslim brands of Islam became the permanent reason of disagreements both between Iran and Iraq, and in Iraq between representatives of Sunni and Shia Muslim brand. Political power in Iraq traditionally belonged to Sunni minority where dynasties of the Umayyads, Abbasids, Ottoman Turks, the Hashemite monarchy consistently ruled, and then the republican regime was proclaimed. Initially religious disagreements were fuelled by the conflict between Persians and Arabs which arose after conquest of Iran by Arabs (644). The conflict was based on rejection of Arab / Bedouin culture. By this time Iran was a developed state with long and rich history, culture and with
all administrative institutions. That circumstance that the Prophet didn't leave behind a male successor created in Arab society an opportunity for emergence of a new tradition - a selection of the leader, i.e. the Caliph (deputy). For bedouins inheritance (in the absence of a lineal heir) could go in the line of brothers. Persians also developed a doctrine about Imamah which proved the rights of Ali descendants on the supreme power.
For Sunnis the Shiite understanding of imam's function as go-between God and a person is unacceptable as Sunnis adhere to the concept of direct worshiping Allah, without intermediaries. In Shia Islam Ayatollah is Allah's deputy, is considered to be the representative of "a hidden imam" (Mahommed al-Mahdi) replacing him until he returns. In Sunni Islam imam is an ordinary religious figure, deserved authority by theological knowledge, the head of rituals of prayers, and their clergy institute is deprived of a mystical image. Sunnis worship the first for "righteous Caliphs," but disallow Ali's dynasty. Aggravation of disputes on this issue was reflected in comments of the last Umayyads period. And Shias had a practice of allegorical interpretation of the Quran to find arguments in favor of 'Ali.
The Quran was canonized at the Caliph Osman (644-651) and its samples for copying were sent out in all directions of the caliphate. All suras were provided with isnad supporting its authenticity - a list of people, generally associates of the Prophet and members of his family according to whom the most part of texts was written down. Besides, it was forbidden to use not canonized texts. Meanwhile in Iran there was a process of Islam adaptation to local conditions. The image 'Ali, the last of righteous Caliphs who was accepted by Iranians gained pattern of a national hero of Persian epic. By the example of "Sunnah" (collections of legends about the Prophet's life) it was created Akhbar - a collection of plots from Ali's life. Shias consider the text of the Quran accepted in Sunni Islam surreptitious. In certain cases, Shias in their way interpret meaning of some words which are graphically similar to
writing of name 'Ali. Most of Shias and Sunnis consider that the Quran is sacred and secured from any corruption.
From the beginning of Buwayhids rule in Baghdad in 945 who belonged to moderate Shias the aspiration of governors to maneuvre between Shias and Sunnis inhabiting Iraq became observable. In the period of Ottoman board Shias in Iraq were in a majority, but in dependency. In XVIII - the beginning of the XIX century in the neighboring Iran immigration of rich Indian Shias who backed up the economic potential of Shias of Iraq that promoted status rise of the community. Proselytism activity of Shiite sheikhs who, unlike Sunni ulama, were protest carriers against power of Ottomans was the cause of fast distribution of Shia Islam. During Ottoman domination in Iraq the authorities tried throughout to annihilate Shias. Sultan Selim I in 1513 ordered to annihilate from 40 to 50 thousand subject Shias.
In the XX century when Iraq became a colony of Great Britain, London, being concerned about of its power strength, relied on representatives of Hashim family, the Prophet's descendants, and those tribes which supported them. Meanwhile princes of Hashim family, the Prophet's offspring, were held in Istanbul as high-ranking hostages. Princes were children of Hussein Ben Ali, the sherif of Mecca who in 1916 declared independence of the Ottoman Empire. In the mid-1920s kingdom Hijaz was conquered by the governor of Nejd then the united Kingdom was created. In October, 1924 the sherif of Mecca Hussein was dethroned and expelled from the country by a reunion of nobles who swore to the conqueror Ibn Saud, the founder of the dynasty and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Abdel Aziz ibn Saud was proclaimed the king of Hijaz, the Emir of Nejd and joined territories. In Iraq till 1958 three generations of Hashemite governed until power was seized by military.
During the 1930s, the researcher notes, in Arab countries the movement which purpose was the all-Arab unity was gaining momentum. In December, 1931 in Jerusalem the Muslim Congress in which Sunnis and Shias participated took place. General
Executive Committee headed by Emin Haji Hussein, the mufti of Palestine was elected at the congress. Besides, there were elaborated documents on the basis of which the international Muslim organizations were created. From a rostrum of the congress religious figures of both branches of Islam appealed Muslims for uniting to support Palestine which was under control of England. However practical steps were taken only in 1948 when the Iranian sheikh Muhammad Taghi Kummi created in Cairo the Organization for reconciliation of Islamic branches ("Dzhama'at at-takrib beyna al-mazakhib al-Islamiya"). The fatwah became the result of activity of this movement in which Mahmoud Shaltut, rector of Al-Azhar, declared recognition by the fifth madhhab of Islam Shia Islam of Ja'fari sense on an equal basis with four Sunni schools / madhhabs.
The Ba'ath party created in 1947 in Syria as one of its goals set consolidation of all Arabs. In Iraq the Ba'ath party was founded in July, 1968. Initially Iraqi branch of Ba'ath party consisted of approximately equal number of Sunnis, Shias and Christians. However soon the Ba'ath consisted half of Shias. Ba'ath Party members paid special attention to army. Political rule in Iraq, the author reports, where dynasties of the Umayyads, Abbasids, Ottoman Turks, the Hashim monarchy governed in succession, and then the republican regime was proclaimed, always belonged to Sunni minority.
At the beginning of the 20th century adherents of Shia Islam formed popular majority of southern and central regions of Iraq. The policy of the Ottoman Sunni authorities aimed at transformation of nomadic tribes into settled people, granting of the private rights for tenancy of land generated sense of unfairness and caused oppositional sentiments spiraling into deeds of protest in tribes. Tribes involved in the conflict with the authorities saw warrant in Shia Islam: Shia Islam attracted them with the idea of fight for justice. Under Saddam Hussein rule first of all Kurds, residents of oil regions, incurred repressions.
Their separatism threatened the state. The Shia religious elite wasn't touched, but kept under control, didn't allow creation of political organizations. The Shia organization "Da'va" (Appeal) operating in the underground was broken up, and its leader - the ayatollah Muhammad Bakr al-Sadr was executed in 1980. After 1979 fear of transfer of Shia revolution to the territory of Iraq led to a war of Baghdad with Tehran in 1980-1988.
After invasion of American troops into Iraq in 2003 all former power structures in the country were annihilated. Because of the fact that there was no civil society and secular opposition in the country, Iraqis began to unite on the basis of religious communities. Kurds and Shias started taking an active part in the north principally in Nedzhef and Karbala. There emerged the Association of Muslim ulama (Sunnis) and more radical organizations sort of Al-Qaeda. Also the pro-Iranian Shia organizations ("Ad-Da'va") became more active. Americans brought Kurds and Shias to power in the country. For some of them the main goal was to expel Sunnis from power structures in the government and army. In the country discontent passing into risings which were put down throughout violence increased. The West intentionally realized a number of operations on implementation of the plan the Greater Middle East in which some new states headed by the regimes loyal to the USA and their allies were meant to be created.
In conclusion the researcher emphasizes: initiation of opposition between Sunnis and Shias, excess importance of this factor, creates an external cover of the events. Actually, Tehran rejected "export of Islamic revolution" long ago, but Arabian politicians aren't going to back away countermeasures to Iranian support of Shias in Arab countries because it is so convenient cause for confrontation continuing. Here it is observed coincidence of interests of the West and Arabian monarchies.
Author of the abstract - Elena Dmitrieva
