CC BY
94
УДК^О^ 378»20»
Эндрю Тарговски, доктор, профессор, президент Международного общества сравнительного изучения цивилизаций, директор центра устойчивых бизнес практик, Университет Западного Мичигана, Каламазоо, Мичиган, США
www.wmich.edu/iscsc
Andrew Targowski, Prof., Dr., President of the International Society for the Comparative Study of Civilizations (ISCSC), Director of the Center for Sustainable Business Practices,
WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008, USA
andrew.targowski@wmich. edu www.wmich.edu/iscsc
ЦИВИЛИЗАЦИОННыЙ ПОДХОД В ОБРАЗОВАНИИ XXI ВЕКА THE CIVILIZATION APPROACH TO EDUCATION IN THE XXI CENTURY
*Посвящается Питириму А. Сорокину, первому американскому президенту Международного общества сравнительного изучения цивилизаций, 1964-71
* Dedicated to Pitrim A. Sorokin, The first American President of the ISCSC, 1964-71
В статье отражена роль образования в развитии цивилизации, в ее способе существовать и погибнуть. Данное исследование предлагает программу по развитию цивилизаций, которая охватывает практически все высшее образование и рекомендуется к применению при подготовке специалистов в области лидерства в обществе и мире. Образовательный план раскрывается через исторический экскурс в образование, состояние образования на заре 21-го века, синтез обучения для работы, жизни и лидерства в обществе и мире. далее определен цивилизационный подход в образовании. В заключении предлагается пример программы по развитию цивилизаций, а также сформулирована «всепронизывающая» стратегия ее реализации.
The article reflects the role of education in any civilization development, in its way to exist and to perish. This investigation offers the Civilization Development Curriculum which should penetrate almost every kind of higher education and particularly should be practiced in education of leaders of the society and world. The justification for this plan is provided through the historic perspective of education, the state of education at the dawn of the 21st century, synthesis of learning for work, life and leading the society and world. Then, the civilization approach to education is defined. In effect, an example of the civilization development curriculum is offered as well as the octopus strategy of its implementation is formulated.
Ключевые слова: цивилизация, программа по развитию цивилизаций, тенденции цивилизаций, глобализация тенденций, тенденции людей.
Key words: civilization, civilization development curriculum, civilization dynamics, globalization dynamics, human dynamics.
The purpose of this investigation is to define the civilization approach to education in the 21st century, when civilization is at risk due to many obvious and known factors which are beyond this study. Therefore the civilization issues should be embedded into higher education programs and curricula in order to develop the sustainable civilization.
This approach is the result of 60 years of the research done within the International Society for the Comparative Study of Civilizations (ISCSC). Arnold Toynbee [1889-1975] is the pioneer of the civilization study. He was a British historian whose twelve-volume analysis of the rise and fall of civilizations, A Study of History (1934-1961), was a synthesis of world history, a metahistory based on universal rhythms of rise, flowering and decline, which examined history from a global perspective. He perceived a civilization as a religion-driven large cultural entity and recognized 26 different civilizations. Since his monumental contribution, about 500 Civili-zationists have been investigated civilization. Among them one can mention, sociologist Pitirim Sorokin, anthropologist Roger Wescott; historians Ferdynand Braudel, Rushton Coul-born, Carroll Quigley, Feliks Koneczny; political scientist David Wilkinson; literary comparatist Michael Palencia-Roth; sociologists C. P. Wolf, Vytautas Kavolis, Matthew Melko (The Nature of Civilizations, 1969), Benjamin Nelson and other scholars such as Talcott Parsons, Hayden White, Immanuel Wallerstein, Gordon Hewes, Andre Gunder Frank, Marshall Sahlins, Lynn White Jr., Jeremy Sabloff, Samuel Huntington, Stephen Blaha (physicist), William McGaughey, and others.
Since this paper is presented in Russia, one must mention a great civilization-oriented research role of Russian-born Pitrim Sorokin (1889-1968), professor at Harvard, and the founder of this University's Department of Sociology. He was a member of the Kerensky Cabinet, the first democratic one in this country. After the Bolshevik Revolution-1917, he was condemned to death and later expelled from Russia (in a special train with other anti-Bolshevik intellectuals). In the book on Social and Cultural Dynamics (1937) he classified societies according to their «cultural mentality», which can be ideational (reality is spiritual), sensate (reality is material), or idealistic (a synthesis of the two). He suggested that major civilizations evolve through these three in turn: ideational, idealistic, and sensate. Each of these phases not only seeks to describe the nature of reality, but also stipulates the nature of human needs and goals to be satisfied, and the methods of satisfaction. Sorokin has interpreted contemporary Western
Civilization as a sensate civilization dedicated to technological progress and prophesied its fall into decadence and the emergence of a new ideational or idealistic era. Sorokin shared this view with a German philosopher Oswald Spengler (18801936) who in the book The Decline of the West (1918-22 the Germen edition, 1939 English edition) was predicting this rather pessimistic process which is very evident in the dawn of the 21st century.
So far the comparative study of civilization was mostly in hands of historians (and only a few other kinds of specialization). But at the end of the 20th century, rapid changes in the world economy (driven by the information technology-the Internet including) and social structure have brought into question traditional historic approach to civilization. Political scientists, such as Francis Fukuyama predicted The End of History (1989, 1992) and Samuel Huntington turned our attention to The Clash of Civilizations (1993-paper, 1996-book). This author is for example an information technology scholar (Information Technology and Societal Development, 2009).
Currently, at the beginning of the 21st century, one can discern eight-well established religion-oriented civilizations and one business-oriented (Targowski 2009a:64). There are as follows: the Chinese (3,500 years old), Hindu (2,600), African (2,500), Eastern (2,325), Buddhist (1,400), Japanese (1,350), Western (1,200), Islamic (1,400), and Global (10+, business-oriented). The ISCSC International Conference in 2009 at the Western Michigan University (Kalamazoo, Michigan) was on Civilization in Crisis, indicated that today business drives performance of civilization and due to over-industrialization, the strategic resources (energy, water, environment, and food) decline rapidly along with the unprecedented rise of greed practiced by the global business elite. As the result of it, the study of civilizations become very interdisciplinary and penetrating almost every facet of education and life.
The relationships among the current eight civilizations are illustrated in Figure 1. The scope and range of encounters among current civilizations is as follows (Targowski 2009a:72):
• The Clash Zone I: Among the Islamic and Eastern, Western, and Japanese Civilizations (in the area of Malaysia and Indonesia)
• The Clash Zone II: Between the Chinese and Japanese Civilizations
C / N C •+- ► r >
Eastern ■*- ► Islamic Japanese
і ^
vW+M
T
C I
Hindu W+M f > Western
M ' r
Д
African Buddhist
V
Figure 1 Main Zones of Civilization Clashes and Collaboration C - Clash, M. - Modernization, W - Westernization
• The Collaboration Zone I: Among the Western, Hindu, Eastern and Japanese Civilizations
• The Collaboration Zone II: Among the Hindu, African, and Buddhist Civilizations.
These kinds of relationships among civilizations impact all main human activities which are of cross-culture and international character in politics, business, engineering, art and science, justice, religion, and so forth. Hence they should be studied by the future and current leaders of the society and world. This investigation will offer the Civilization Curriculum which should cover these kinds of relationships and their related topics and issues in the 21st century.
In conclusion of the short historic perspective of education one can define the following conclusions:
1. Education was considered as a very important value by almost all emerging modern nations since the Renaissance (the Middle Ages).
2. The first education curricula were religion-oriented, mostly defined and organized for the preparations of the future clergy. Later it evolved into liberal arts education in Western and Eastern Civilizations.
3. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution (the 19th century) education became more specialized and categorized by kinds of professions. However, some elements of liberal arts educations have been present as general education in the most of professionally oriented curricula.
4. The trend of deepening the professional education in the second part of the 20th century, created so called silos-oriented education, preparing narrowly-oriented specialists. Their future role in the society is problematic and sometimes limited and even negative.
5. In some countries with dictatorial or authoritarian governments education was a subject of censorship, particularly in social sciences. As the result of it, negative knowledge & wisdom was created and penetrated students' minds with a strong consequences for their future role in the society.
THE STATE OF EDUCATION AT THE DAWN OF THE XXI CENTURY
The strong development of globalization, triggered by the Internet, global transportation systems, and business is creating the new landscape and distilling lessons from the past. Hence, education in the 21st century needs new rules and structures to serve as a foundation for the development policy in this century. The civilization clashes (in Afghanistan and Iraq, to mention just the most visible places) and economic crisis of 2008 showed the lack of wisdom, knowledge and skills among world leaders to pursue political, macroeconomic stability, and well-being of the society. The world leaders and their advisers did not display the wise tools to cope with the globalization's challenges. Since their education was provided in those siloses.
Education in the 21st century must take into account the following factors:
• Profound innovations in technology which change the modus operandi of the society, for example, transforming it from the real to virtual one. The latter formed new political elite of 100 million, mostly young people who are in touch and informed instantly, living in all corners of the world.
• The fast spread of knowledge from advanced to developing nations. In effect, China became the World Factory and
India became the World Laboratory, and the developed nations are losing its middle class and their purchasing power.
• The growth of population and its concentration in cities as well as international migration which destabilizes the local labor force.
• The financial integration of the world which leads to huge wealth interception by a very narrow group of people under the flag of Managerial Revolution.
• The declining morale and ethics among business elite of the world.
• Globalization which threatens localization and triggers issues of supranational versus subnational problems and challenges.
• The rising demands for political and human rights.
• The clash of Islamic Civilization with Western and Eastern Civilizations.
• The limits of capitalism, socialism, and communism as effective and socially acceptable world-systems and the lack of new sounding ideas.
• The fast demising of world reserves of strategic resources.
• Diminishing environment due to overpopulation and industrialization, and lack of effective national and international counter measures.
• The idealistic spread of democracy which is powerless in solving all these problems.
• Other.
Of course, these factors are subjects of education but not in a consolidated manner or even in a formal manner as a legitimate part of curricula. These issues sometimes are subjects of dissertations and seminars but they are not widely recognized among the members of the society and societies. Furthermore, the faculty is reluctant in changing ways and contents of teaching, due to routine and easiness in carrying their duties. Also, administration in higher education, particularly in the Western Civilization is detached from the academic processes, seeing its role as «playing save,» and looking for the next better paid job elsewhere.
In conclusion one must emphasize that; «Global education is an imperative not an option» if our education and graduates are to survive globalization (ACIIE, 1996:2). According to Zeszotarski (2001) «ACIIE presents a rather narrow conception of globalization that does not acknowledge the cultural, political, or social dimensions of internationalization. Much of the public and academic debate on globalization focuses on issues surrounding the rise of the global economy: the worldwide influence of capitalism, the rise of information as the significant economic product, the need for knowledgeable workers skilled in information technology, and the new role of labor. Despite the focus on economic forces, globalization has a social and cultural face as well. The spread of electronic communications technology in particular has had a profound effect on developing what McLuhan called the «global village. «»
The current level of education in the 21st century is mostly offered at the level of small-picture and in the realm of unlimited strategic resources, what could be acceptable in the 19th and 20th centuries but not in the 21st century. At the level of big-picture of civilization, the world's state is rather pessimistic than optimistic as it was in the past two centuries, when «the sky was the limit.» But not anymore this premise is valid.
LEARNING FOR WORK AND LIFE
Despite great progress in primary schooling in some developing countries, the preparation of youth for work and life is very low, just as demand for knowledge and skills is rising. Past education policies focused on increasing the number of people who go through the education system rather than learning the «right stuff» in schools. As the result of it there are many pseudo-educated people who cannot read and write properly even in developed nations. To prepare young people for the future work and life they must learn the «right stuff.» Since, education opportunities are not enough when young people and the society cannot benefit from them.
In order to be successful in the life, young people should have a solid foundation for readiness for post-primary education. This foundation is at the level of efficient knowledge, skills, and wisdom, such as:
• BASIC KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS
- Special knowledge (including numeracy and literacy).
- Life on Earth (sustainable eco-system and common goods).
- Life in the Society (ends of life, virtues & values).
• POST-BASIC KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS
- Thinking skills (critical, creative thinking, and problemsolving)
- Higher order behavioral skills (decision-making, perseverance, self-discipline, teamwork, the ability to negotiate conflict and manage risk).
- Life-long learning attitude.
- Life in Civilization (cross-culture and cross-civilization interaction).
• SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS & WISDOM
- Vocational knowledge and skills (to perform jobs that rely on clearly defined tasks).
- Prudent judgment of real-life situations (adapted in its complexity to each level of education).
The presented set of knowledge, wisdom and skills is only partially applicable at the level of primary and secondary education, even in the developed countries. One of the reasons of such situation is the lack of properly educated teachers and education leaders. Hence, the World Civilization in the 21st century is misguided almost at all levels of the society. Its revival without properly educated «global citizens» is not possible!
LEARNING FOR LEADING THE SOCIETY AND WORLD
So far education in the last 2 centuries was guided by such world-systems as capitalism, socialism, and communism. Furthermore, it took place in situation when the strategic resources looked as are unlimited. Therefore these three world-systems were of philosophical nature, preferring either individual or societal interest. Nowadays, such luxury of thinking is not possible anymore! The World Civilization, due to its false overdevelopment may not last long. According to Tar-gowski (2009a) we face the Death Triangle of Civilization about 2050, as it is shown in Figure 2. The situation is serious and requires the fast intervention by humans who are not educationally prepared to do so. Perhaps it is even too late.
In order to act wisely for the good sake of civilization, mankind needs not only well educated people at all levels of the
Figure 1 The Death Triangle of Civilization (The Targowski Model)
society, but particularly needs well educated and responsible leaders of the society.
In the 21st century one can observe the following symptoms among the world leaders:
A. Shallow knowledge & wisdom of the economy. For example:
(1) The accelerated growth of economy became the unquestionable goal of their decision-making. However, growth cannot go forever.
(2) Only business costs are taking into account, neglecting environmental and societal costs.
(3) Wrong diagnosis of the 2008 economic crisis and wrong treatments are applied. None of governmental stimu-luses will increase the purchasing power of consumers, since the service economy is too weak to support the American Way of Life. Business outsourcing production off shore hurts its customers but cannot stop it, since short benefits used to be too good (hedge executive bonuses).
B. Transnational and national scope of corruption. Worldwide, more than $1 trillion (billion in European measures), or the equivalent of 3 percent of Gross World Product is paid in bribes each year (Bhargava 2006:343).
C. Unethical decision-making in business and politics, aimed mostly at narrow interests.
D. Small-picture oriented thinking, reduced to the terms of being in the elected office and lack of knowledge, wisdom & skills in applying big-picture approach in solving problems.
Some blame for these kinds of behavior must be addressed to the education curricula which are too specific and unfitted to the current and future outcomes of civilization. Poorly educated societal and world leaders misguide civilization and put it at risk what is taking place in the 21st century. Higher education's main inquiry is knowledge, while it should be wisdom. Wisdom is prudent judgment and choice while knowledge is about rules. There are people who are knowledgeable but unwise and vice versa. Why colleges and universities limit their education only to knowledge is not understandable. Wisdom left to practice comes very often too late.
The comparison of historic approaches to education is provided in Table 1.
2050-2150
APPROACHES KEY SOLUTION SOLUTION'S CHARACTER POPULARITY POTENTIAL IN 21ST CENTURY
PLATONIC Liberal versus vocational education Structured In most of civilizations Applicable
THOMIST Scholastics Lerner is most important Civilized religion Not much Limited application, mostly in terms of morality
LOCKEAN Virtue, wisdom, breeding, learning, individualism, and practice Whole person In Anglo-Saxon cultures Wholeness, wisdom, practice, and learning
NATURALIST Feeling should precede thinking Personality over knowing In «progressive» education Only some limited elements
MARXIST Accountable communal man Societal In Marxist societies Applicable but without the political Marxism
PRAGMATIC Reflective man Organized science as a tool in solving problems In Anglo-Saxon cultures Applicable
BEHAVIORIST Scientific control of behavior Shaping obedient personalities In the U.S. in some schools Hardly applicable
EXISTENTIALIST Learning by action and dialogue Relationship to others In some schools, particularly in France Applicable
These approaches, with the exception to the Platonic approach, promote human syntax (grammar) of being within the society. However, human semantics is also very important. It reflects the key, thematic content of education. It will be defined for the 21st century in the next section.
THE CIVILIZATION APPROACH To EDUCATION DEFINED
Civilization is defined as follows (this composite definition is based on many definitions by others, Targowski 2009b) and illustrated in Figure 3:
Civilization is a large society living in an autonomous, blurry reification (invisible-visible) which is not a part of larger one and exists over an extended period of time. It specializes in labor and differentiates from other civilizations by developing its own advanced cultural system driven by communication, religion, wealth, power, and sharing the same knowledge system within complex urban, agricultural infrastructures, and others such as industrial, information ones. It also progresses in a cycle of rising, growing, declining and falling.
Wealth vs. Povet
Communication-
_ CIVILIZATION
Cultural System
Religior
Rulers \ Large Society
,uS,
Religieou;
Infrastructural
System
Agriculture I Informati on
Industry Infrastructure
Figure 3 A Model of Civilization
THE OCTOPUS STRATEGY OF APPLYING
THE CIVILIZATION APPROACH IN EDUCATION
The aim of transforming civilization-oriented curricula across the university campus in the 21st century is to achieve higher intensity of instruction through the interconnected academic environment. The strategy assuring the accomplishment of this aim should be based on sustaining good solution and innovate new solutions based on dual programs.
By a dual program we understand that a traditional and civilization programs are integrated either:
• At the level of whole courses, or
• At the level of a given traditional course which includes the main civilization issues.
Arts & 4 N 4 Engi- 4 Other V
Level Q: Ends and Quality of Life
XL
Level M: Methods of Reasoning, Dialogue and Universalism —
Level T: Info-Communication Technology
N Program C: Civilization Dynamics
hi
Program G: Globalization Dynamics
Program H: Human Dynamics
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HU
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Enhanced (Whole, Moral, Feeling, Reflective, Accountable, Learning, Informed, Knowledgable, and Wise) Person-Graduate
Figure 4 The Octopus Strategy of Applying Civilization Curriculum
in practice, through its gradual implementations and improvements.
3. It is not obvious whether the Faculty and Administration of majority of higher education institutions are ready for this civilization curriculum. Perhaps the first pioneers must volunteer and show others how to successfully implement this curriculum. It can be implemented either from the top or from the bottom. The former can be easier accomplished in more centralized environments (Eastern Civilization), the latter is more appropriate for decentralized situation, mostly typical for the Western-West Civilization (North Atlantic Civilization).
The Figure 4 depicts a concept of the Octopus Strategy. The Octopus Strategy means that it penetrates the university's all programs, curricula, and courses. The Octopus Strategy requires strong university leadership and consensus to implement the civilization curriculum in the systemic and right way.
CONCLUSION
1. The Civilization Curriculum is the product of almost 60 years of the research of the International Society for the Comparative Study of Civilizations. Today, the state of Civilization is at risk, due to many obvious and known factors, which are beyond this investigation. Therefore the civilization issues should be embedded into higher education programs and curricula in order to develop the sustainable civilization.
2. The presented civilization approach to education in the 21st century is one of the first comprehensive attempts in this area. It is a model-oriented approach which should be tested
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УДК/UDC: 377:378. 12(470. 41)
г. в. мухаметзянова, доктор педагогических наук, профессор, действительный член Российской академии образования, директор Института педагогики и психологии профессионального образования РАО
Mukhametzyanova Guzel valeevna, EdD, Professor, Full Member of Russian Academy of Education (RAE), Director of the Institute of Pedagogy and Psychology for Professional Education RAE
НОВЫЕ ПАРАДИГМЫ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЙ НАУКИ - ТЕОРЕТИКОМЕТОДОЛОГИЧЕСКОЕ ОСНОВАНИЕ ФУНДАМЕНТАЛЬНЫХ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЙ ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ NEW PARADIGMS OF PEDAGOGICAL SCIENCES - THEORETICAL-METHODOLOGICAL BASIS OF FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCHES IN PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
В статье рассматриваются приоритетные направления фундаментальных исследований профессионального образования: развитие региональных систем профессионального образования, интеграционные процессы в профессиональном образовании, формирование и развитие модульно-компетентностных технологий профессионального образования, разработка стратегии развития системы НПО, СПО и ВПО, создание системы подготовки педагогических кадров для профессионального образования, создание программ развития профессионального образования, совершенствование системы управления профессиональным образованием.
This paper's purpose is to introduce the fundamental trends of researches in professional education: development of regional systems in professional education, integration processes in professional education, generation and development of modular-competence technologies in professional education, development of generation strategies in primary vocational education (PVE), secondary vocational education (SVE), higher professional education (HPE) systems, development of teaching staff training systems for professional edu-
cation, development of programs for improvement of professional education, improvement of professional education management systems.
Ключевые слова: парадигмы педагогической науки, фундаментальные исследования, профессиональное образование, региональные системы профессионального образования, интеграционные процессы, модульно-ком-петентностные технологии, стратегии развития системы НПО, СПО и ВПО, подготовка педагогических кадров для профессионального образования, программы развития профессионального образования, управление профессиональным образованием.
Key words: paradigms of pedagogical sciences, fundamental researches, professional education, regional systems in professional education, integration processes, modular-competence technologies, generation strategies in PVE, SVE, HPE systems, training of teaching staff for professional education, programs for improvement of professional education, professional education management.
В современных условиях, когда «человеческий капи-
