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Original article
DOI: 10.31696/2227-5568-2021-04-062-073
TRANSPORT IN INDONESIA: RECENT DEVELOPMENT TRENDS
Svetlana Chesnokova a
a - IOS RAS, Moscow, Russia a - cs7@mail.ru, ORCID: 0000-0001-6875-6144
Abstract. Indonesia's transport system was formed largely based on the economic resource base of the archipelago, which consists of more than 17,800 Islands, on which the country is located. The Indonesian Central government's spending on transport has increased significantly in recent years. This allowed the country to expand its transport network and improve access to remote areas of the archipelago.
Maritime navigation provides a link between different parts of the country. On some Islands, where there are no good roads, the main transport connection is via large rivers. The most important direction of the country's transport policy is the development of high-speed cargo and passenger sea connections with the most remote and inaccessible regions of the country, primarily with the Eastern part of Indonesia.
A variety of vehicles are used on the roads of Indonesia. Bus routes are laid in all areas that have access to the road network. Since 2004, the TransJakarta rapid bus system has been operating in the country.
Most of Indonesia's Railways are located in Java and are used for both passenger and freight transport.
In March 2019, the Jakarta metro started operating.
Indonesia's air transport is the most important means of communication between thousands of Islands throughout the archipelago and other countries. Many residents of the country have switched from land and sea transport to faster and more comfortable air transportation. Indonesia, like other countries, was severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Further development of transport depends on how quickly the country recovers from the COVID-19 pandemic and how effectively the authorities deal with its consequences. Keywords: Transportation; sea traffic; railways; public transport; air transportation; bus traffic; pandemic
ЭКОНОМИКА
Научная статья
ТРАНСПОРТ ИНДОНЕЗИИ
Чеснокова Светлана Викторовна a
a - Институт востоковедения РАН, Москва, Россия a - cs7@mail.ru, ORCID: 0000-0001-6875-6144
Аннотация. Транспортная система Индонезии формировалась во многом с учетом экономической ресурсной базы архипелага, состоящего из более чем 17 800 островов, на котором расположена страна. Расходы центрального правительства Индонезии на транспорт за последние годы существенно выросли. Это позволило стране расширить возможности транспортной сети и улучшить доступ к удаленным районам архипелага.
Морское судоходство обеспечивает связь между различными частями страны. На некоторых островах, где отсутствуют хорошие дороги, основное транспортное сообщение осуществляется по крупным рекам. Важнейшим направлением транспортной политики страны является развитие скоростного грузового и пассажирского морского сообщения с самыми удаленными и труднодоступными регионами страны, прежде всего с восточной частью Индонезии. На дорогах Индонезии используются разнообразные транспортные средства. Автобусные маршруты проложены во всех областях, имеющих выход к дорожной сети. С 2004 г. в стране функционирует линия системы скоростных автобусных перевозок TransJakarta. Большая часть железных дорог Индонезии расположена на Яве и используется как для пассажирских, так и для грузовых перевозок.
В марте 2019 года начал функционировать Джакартский метрополитен. Воздушный транспорт Индонезии служит важнейшим средством сообщения между тысячами островов на всем архипелаге и другими странами. Многие жители страны перешли от наземного и морского транспорта к более быстрым и комфортабельным авиаперевозкам. Индонезия, как и другие страны, в 2020 году подверглась жесточайшему воздействию пандемии COVID-19. Дальнейшее развитие транспорта зависит от того, насколько быстро страна восстановится после пандемии COVID-19 и насколько эффективно власть справится с ее последствиями. Ключевые слова: Транспорт; морское сообщение; железные дороги; общественный транспорт; авиаперевозки; автобусное сообщение; пандемия
Indonesia is the fourth most populous country in the world and the largest economy in Southeast Asia. It is located on a vast archipelago of more than 17,800 islands.
Indonesia's transportation system has been shaped largely by the economic resource base of the archipelago. This system has also been influenced by the fact that more than half of the country's population, which already exceeds 270 million1, lives on one island, Java.
The Indonesian central government's spending on transportation increased rapidly until the COVID-19 pandemic began. This allowed the country to expand the capacity of its transportation network and improve access to some of the most remote areas of the archipelago.
All modes of transport play their role and tend to complement each other rather than compete with each other. Road transport dominates the country.
The rail system has four unconnected networks in Java and Sumatra, which are primarily for bulk freight and long-distance passenger traffic.
Maritime transport is extremely important for the economic integration of the country as well as for domestic and foreign trade. Each of the major islands has at least one major port city.
The role of inland waterways is relatively minor and limited to certain areas of East Sumatra and Kalimantan.
Air transport plays a significant role, especially where land or water transport is scarce or non-existent. The country has an extensive network of domestic airlines connecting major cities.
According to the latest official statistics, in 2020 maritime transport accounted for 8.7% of the contribution of the entire transport industry to GDP, inland water-
1 World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SRPORTOTLPlocationsHD (01.02.2021)
way transport for 2.9%, road and horse-drawn vehicles for 68.2%, rail for 1.4% and aviation for 18.8%2.
Water transport
Because Indonesia is located on a vast archipelago maritime shipping provides the necessary connections between different parts of the country and other nations. Commonly used vessels include container ships, tankers, bulk carriers, general cargo ships, ferries, passenger ships, sailing boats and small motor vessels. Until now the traditional wooden vessels "pinisi" are used for cargo, passenger, fishing and tourism within the archipelago.
Numerous ferries cross the straits between nearby islands, especially in the area extending from Sumatra through Java to the Lesser Sunda Islands. At the busy crossings between Sumatra, Java and Bali there are often numerous car ferries running around the clock. There is also an international ferry service in the Malacca Straits between Sumatra and Malaysia, as well as between Singapore and nearby Indonesian islands such as Batam.
A network of passenger ships provides connections to outlying islands, especially in the eastern part of the archipelago. The largest ferry network between all of Indonesia's inhabited islands is owned by the state-owned Pelni which operates modern and capacious European-built ships. Pelni ships generally provide the least expensive way to travel between the islands. The smaller privately-owned ships also provide connections between the islands.
On some islands where good roads are not available the main transportation is by large rivers. In Kalimantan long boats plying the rivers are the only way to reach many of the interior.
Indonesia has 21 579 km of navigable waterways3 that can be used by medium-sized ships. About half of these routes are in Kalimantan and a quarter are in Sumatra and Papua Province. In Kalimantan and Papua unlike highly developed Java road and rail transport is underdeveloped. Indonesia currently has the seventh longest waterways in the world4.
According to official statistics, maritime transport accounts for only 8.7% of the total transport contribution to GDP5. Indonesia's fleet tonnage in 2018 was 22 313 thousand tons deadweight6. This included a tanker fleet of 6825 thousand tons deadweight; a bulk carrier fleet of 4029 thousand tons deadweight; a container ship fleet of 2376 thousand tons deadweight; and a general cargo ship fleet of 3880 thousand tons deadweight7.
2 Calculated from: Economic Indicators. Monthly Statistical Bulletin. December 2020. P. 204
3 The World Factbook. CIA. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ (02.02.2021)
4 Country Comparisons. Waterways. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/ the-world-factbook/field/waterways/country-comparison (15.02.2021)
5 Calculated from: Economic Indicators. Monthly Statistical Bulletin. December 2020. P. 204
6 Deadweight is the value equal to the sum of the mass of the useful cargo carried by the vessel, mass of fuel, oil, service and drinking water, mass of passengers with luggage, crew and foodstuffs.
7 Akimov A.V. Maritime Transport in Asia: A Brief Statistical Essay. Eastern Analytics. Issue 3, 2020. Moscow, Institute of Oriental Studies, pp. 21-23.
Indonesia is one of the world's largest coal exporters. In 2018 Indonesia accounted for one-third of global coal exports. The main importer of Indonesian coal is China. Coal to China is transported by Indonesia's bulk carrier fleet8.
The largest seaports in the country:
1. Tanjung Priok (Jakarta);
2. Tanjung Perak (Surabaya City, East Java);
3. Belawan (Medan, North Sumatra);
4. Makasar (South Sulawesi).
The ports are managed by various port corporations of Indonesia. They have numbers from I to IV. Each corporation operates in a different region of the country, with I in the west and IV in the east. Tanjung Priok Port in Jakarta is Indonesia's busiest port handling more than 5.2 million TEUs. A two-phase expansion project is currently underway at the New Priok Port which will triple the existing annual capacity when it becomes operational in 2023. The strategic port of Kuala Tanjung in North Sumatra was completed in 2015. Eventually it will accommodate 500000 TEU per year and will be able to compete with the port of Singapore.
At the end of 2020 Indonesian President Joko Widodo inaugurated the first phase of Patimban seaport via videoconference in West Java province. Authorities expect the new port to play a strategic role in the development of the country's pandemic-stricken economy. It is also expected to relieve pressure on Jakarta's busy Tanjung Priok port. Rp 43.2 trillion ($3.07 billion) has been allocated to build the port. It is located in Subang, 140 km east of the capital Jakarta. Due to its strategic location Patimban will play a major role in providing cargo flows for various sectors of the economy, including industry and agriculture, as well as for the growth of product exports. The funds to build the port were provided by the Japanese government.
Indonesian leaders are keen to use the new port to boost the competitiveness of Indonesian exports especially in the automotive industry. In December 2020 on the eve of the port's first official day of operation a test shipment of the first export cargo from Patimban (140 Toyota and Daihatsu cars that were shipped to Brunei) was transshipped. Full completion of the port is scheduled for 2027. The project will create up to 5 million jobs in West Java province9.
The most important direction of the country's transport policy is the development of high-speed freight and passenger maritime connections to the most remote and inaccessible regions of the country especially to the eastern part of Indonesia. In 2016 President Joko Widodo launched the Tol Laut (Maritime Expressways) program. It is designed to accelerate the economic development of remote areas and promote unity and connectivity among the country's various territories.
8 Akimov A.V. Maritime Transport in Asia: A Brief Statistical Essay. Eastern Analytics. Issue 3, 2020. Moscow, Institute of Oriental Studies, p. 19.
9 December 23 2020. New seaport of Patimban opened in Indonesia. https://portnews.ru/news/306670/ (21.02.2021)
The Indonesia as Global Maritime Fulcrum Strategy
At the beginning of his first term in 2014 Indonesian President Joko Widodo proclaimed the doctrine of Indonesia as Global Maritime Fulcrum. This doctrine envisioned Indonesia becoming a global strategic transport, logistics and trade hub, as well as a major producer and supplier of fish and seafood to the world market, at the crossroads of two world oceans - the Pacific and the Indian. The country's leaders announced a port development program which envisaged the creation of 35 regular and deep-sea ports within the next five years. The implementation of the project required a gigantic amount of work and huge investments with the extensive involvement of foreign capital10.
Many Asian and European countries have expressed interest in cooperating with Indonesia in this ambitious project. The greatest interest in the program was expressed by China. China hoped to link the Indonesian program with its 21st Century Maritime Silk Road project.
In the fall of 2013 Chinese President Xi Jinping during visits to Kazakhstan and Indonesia launched the One Belt, One Road (OBOR) initiative to improve connectivity and deepen transcontinental cooperation. OBOR initiative aimed at improving connectivity and deepening cooperation at the transcontinental level. The initiative contains two main components: the land-based Silk Road Economic Belt (the Belt) and the new 21st Century Maritime Silk Road (the Road). The Land Belt connects China to Central and South Asia, and then to Europe. The Sea Road links China with Southeast Asia, the Persian Gulf, East and North Africa and then with Europe.
The water area of the Indonesia as Global Maritime Fulcrum doctrine is geographically included in the space of the 21st century Maritime Silk Road. Indonesia willingly accepted China's offer to cooperate on these two largely overlapping and complementary projects. The pairing of the two programs would create new maritime routes through Indonesian territorial waters, making it cheaper to transport goods. It was not unreasonable for Indonesia to count on China's participation in the construction and modernization of its seaports. At the same time many Indonesian analysts pointed to such possible problems as flooding Indonesia with Chinese goods and China gaining control over such strategic facilities as ports, and the resulting loss of Indonesian sovereignty over its territorial waters.
However during President Joko Widodo's second term, which began in 2019, it became clear that interest in the Indonesian maritime axis doctrine had declined. Thus, there is virtually no mention of the doctrine in presidential speeches and government documents.
A number of experts believe the main reason for the failure of the doctrine is the country's lack of economic development and low export volumes, even compared to such neighbors as Malaysia and Thailand. Indonesia's modest
10 Efimova L. M. Indonesia's "Maritime World Fulcrum" and China's "Maritime Silk Road". MGIMO Review of International Relations. Moscow 2015;(6(45)):196-204.
investment opportunities do not meet the requirements of this global doctrine. The maritime and fisheries sectors of the economy, which should make a decisive contribution to the implementation of the global maritime axis concept, are underdeveloped11.
Another important reason for the declining interest in the doctrine experts call the insufficient geopolitical weight of Indonesia.
Apparently the global maritime axis program, presented in 2014, was not elaborated deeply enough.
Automobile transport
A variety of vehicles are used on Indonesia's roads. There are bus routes in all areas that have access to the road network. Between major cities, especially in Sumatra, Java and Bali bus service is well developed with mostly nonstop routes. In more remote areas and between smaller towns there are minibuses and minivans (angkut). In the cities mostly buses and vans are used. Very often they serve as shuttle buses.
Due to the growing wealth of Indonesians, the number of private cars is increasing especially in large cities. The total car and motor vehicle fleet in 2020 exceeded 136 million units, including motorcycles - 115 million units; cars - 15.8 million units; trucks - 5 million units; buses - 0.23 million units12. The growth in the number of cars has far outstripped the construction of new roads resulting in frequent traffic jams, including on the freeways. Jakarta for example is notorious for some of the worst traffic jams in the world.
In many of the country's cities and towns some forms of transportation are available for hire, such as cabs and carsharing. There are various types of bus services such as the Kopaja and MetroMini networks.
In 2004 the first line of the TransJakarta bus rapid transit system was put into operation.
This system can be called a revolutionary breakthrough in the development of public transport in Indonesia. Buses run along high-speed corridors with special dedicated lanes. Ticket prices are subsidized by the regional government. The total length of TransJakarta lines is 251.2 km13, making it the longest bus rapid transit system in the world. TransJakarta currently operates about 3900 modern buses. The system's fleet of electric buses is being actively replenished: the first route with only electric vehicles is now available. In February 2020 TransJakarta served an average of about one million passengers daily14 and operated 248 routes.
11 Understanding the cause of declining Maritime Fulcrum Agenda performance. http://news.unair. ac.id/en/2020/12/29/understanding-the-cause-of-declining-maritime-fulcrum-agenda-performance/ (21.02.2021)
12 Statistical Yearbook of Indonesia 2021. P. 431.
13 TransJakarta, the oldest BRT system in Southeast Asia is participating to Busworld. https://devirsaati.com/ transjakarta-the-oldest-brt-system-in-southeast-asia-is-participating-to-busworld (01.03.2021)
14 Achievement unlocked: Transjakarta breaks record for serving one million customers in a day. https:// www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/02/05/achievement-unlocked-transjakarta-breaks-record-for-serving-one-million-customers-in-a-day.html (01.03.2021)
In addition to 15 express corridors with dedicated lanes TransJakarta in cooperation with other transportation companies provides shuttle buses to passengers outside Jakarta.
Other cities (Yogyakarta, Palembang, Bandung, Denpasar, Pekanbaru, Semarang, Makasar and Padang) also have a bus rapid transit system but without dedicated lanes. Many cities have motorized auto rickshaws (bajajs) of various kinds. Bicycle rickshaws (becaks) are a special attraction on city roads and are also inexpensive transport. However they have been accused of causing serious traffic congestion and consequently their use was banned in most parts of Jakarta in 1972.
The total length of urban roads in Indonesia in 2020 was 543 thousand kilometers15.
The country's highways are divided into national (25 highways, currently only in Java and Sumatra) and toll roads. The most expensive is the Cipularang Toll road which connects Jakarta with Bandung.
Indonesia uses the Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) to manage its road network which has been consistently put into operation since 201216.
More than half of Indonesia's highways are paved.
Indonesia's national highways connect the major cities of Java. There is also one highway in Sumatra. They serve as the main intercity route outside populated areas. Often the national highways bypass the central part of the cities: detours or ring roads are built.
The national highways are managed by the Ministry of Public Works and Housing. The route may be revised if there are traffic problems. This is usually handled by the regional authorities.
The construction of roads including high-speed toll highways receives special attention because they are an important link in the logistics chain which creates the conditions for accelerated economic development.
The total length of toll roads in Indonesia in 2019 was 1780 km. By 2024 it is planned to increase their length by 3000 km17. It is unlikely that these ambitious plans will be fully implemented due to the economic crisis associated with the Covid-19 pandemic.
Rail Transportation and Metro
Most of Indonesia's railroads are located in Java and are used for both passenger and freight transportation. The railroad is operated by the Indonesian company Kereta Api. The intercity rail network in Java is supplemented by local commuter railroads in the Jakarta metropolitan area and in Surabaya. In Jakarta the commuter rail service (Kereta Commuter Indonesia) carries nearly one million passengers a day.
15 Statistical Yearbook of Indonesia 2021. P. 428.
16 RI to adopt ITS gradually starting in 2012. https://en.antaranews.com/news/74080/ri-to-adopt-its-gradually-starting-in-2012 (10.03.2021)
17 Indonesia to Build 3000 Km Toll Roads Until 2024. https://theinsiderstories.com/indonesia-to-build-3000-km-toll-roads-until-2024/ (01.04.2021)
The Jakarta Metro began operating in March 2019. The first phase of the 15.7 km North-South line, which consists of 13 stations (7 elevated stations and 6 subway stations), has been commissioned. This line is expected to serve 212 000 passengers per day. The expected capacity may be increased to 960 000 per day. The distance of 15.7 km can be covered in less than 30 minutes18.
In December 2019, the first light rail line was launched.
Sumatra has four unconnected railway networks in the provinces:
- Aceh;
- North Sumatra (the connection to Aceh is expected to be completed in the 20s);
- West Sumatra;
- South Sumatra and Lampung.
There are no railroads in other parts of Indonesia yet. New networks are being developed in Kalimantan and Sulawesi. In 2015 the government approved a plan to build a high-speed railroad in Java Jakarta-Bandung with Chinese investors. The project is 75% financed by the China Development Bank, a 40-year loan with a ten-year grace period. The rest of the investment is expected to come from a joint venture set up by China Railway Construction Corp (CRCC) along with a consortium of Indonesian state-owned enterprises19. The main line is supposed to be a part of the Chinese global project One Belt, One Road (OBOR) and become the first high-speed railroad (HSR) in Indonesia and Southeast Asia. The length will be about 140 km. The Jakarta-Bandung HSR is a project that plays a significant role in linking the OBOR initiative with the Indonesia as Global Maritime Fulcrum strategy. This is the first time a Chinese high-speed railway system, all its components and production chains, has been launched abroad. The Jakarta-Bandung HSR will connect Indonesia's capital with the country's fourth-largest city with the highest expected speed of 350 km/hour. Once completed and operational, the travel time between the two cities will be reduced from the current three hours to approximately 40 minutes. By February 2020 44% of the construction work had been completed. Construction of the highway was then halted due to the COVID-19 pandemic20. In May 2020 construction work resumed and is now progressing at a rapid pace21. In April 2021 builders of the Chinese company China Railway Engineering Corporation completed the installation of the main structure of the building of the end station of the main line - Tegalluar in Bandung22.
Distant plans include extending the road to Surabaya, the country's second largest city.
18 MRT Jakarta (North-South Corridor). https://kppip.go.id/en/priority-projects/public-transportation/mrt-jakarta-north-south-corridor/ (10.04.2021)
19 Jakarta to Bandung High-Speed Rail. https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/jakarta-to-bandung-high-speed-rail/ (10.04.2021)
20 Jakarta-Bandung high-speed railway project delayed amid pandemic. https://www.thejakartapost.com/ news/2020/04/15/jakarta-bandung-high-speed-railway-project-delayed-amid-pandemic.html (10.04.2021)
21 Jakarta-Bandung high-speed railway makes steady progress amid COVID-19 pandemic. https://www. globaltimes.cn/content/1196431.shtml (10.04.2021)
22 Installation of the roof of the main structure of the building of the first station of the Jakarta-Bandung ESS is completed. http://russian.peopledaily.com.cn/n3/2021/0501/c31520-9845974.html (12.04.2021)
Air transport
Indonesia's air transport serves as the most important means of communication between thousands of islands throughout the archipelago and other countries. Indonesia is the largest archipelagic country in the world stretching 5120 km from east to west and 1760 km from north to south. With a population of more than 270 million, making it the fourth most populous country in the world, and thanks to the growth of the middle class in the last decade and general economic growth many domestic passengers have switched from land and sea transport to faster and more comfortable air travel. Indonesia is considered by experts to be one of the region's fastest-growing air travel markets. In 2019 the number of Indonesian air passengers was almost 77 million23. However in 2020 this figure dropped to 28 million people. Obviously the decline is caused by the COVID-19 pandemic24.
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) predicts that by 2034 Indonesia will be one of the world's top five air travel markets. By 2034 the number of new Indonesian air passengers is projected to increase by 132 million compared with 201425.
Safety remains a major concern for Indonesian aviation. Several major accidents have given Indonesian aviation the reputation of being the least safe in the world. Indonesian aviation faces many challenges: poorly maintained, outdated and often overwhelmed infrastructure; human error; adverse weather conditions; haze caused by plantation fires; and ash erupted by numerous volcanoes.
There are 673 airports in Indonesia, of which 186 have paved runways and 487 have unpaved runways26. There are also 76 heliports in Indonesia27. Sukar-no-Hatta International Airport (Jakarta) is the main air transport hub of the country. It is also the largest airport in the country. In 2010-2018 it was the busiest airport in Southeast Asia and exceeded such giants as Suvarnaphum (Bangkok, Thailand) and Changi (Singapore) in passenger traffic. In 2019 the airport lost some of its position but was nevertheless the world's 25th busiest28. In 2020 the combined passenger traffic of Indonesia's five largest airports - Sukarno-Hatta (Jakarta, Java); Juanda (Surabaya, Java); Ngurah Rai (Bali); Sultan Hasanuddin (Makassar, Sulawesi) and Kualanamu (Medan, Sumatra) - was over 56% of the total passenger traffic of the country29.
Indonesia has 22 scheduled airlines that carry more than 30 passengers per flight and 32 that carry 30 or fewer passengers per flight, as well as charter airlines.
23 Economic Indicators. Monthly Statistical Bulletin. December 2020. P. 182
24 Calculated by: Economic Indicators. Monthly Statistical Bulletin. December 2020. P. 182
25 Passenger forecast estimates 7 billion by 2034. https://airlines.iata.org/agenda/passenger-forecast-estimates-7-billion-by-2034 (14.04.2021)
26 CIA World Factbook. Indonesia. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ (10.04.2021)
27 CIA World Factbook. Indonesia. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ (10.04.2021)
28 List of airports in Indonesia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Indonesia (10.04.2021)
29 Calculated by: Economic Indicators. Monthly Statistical Bulletin. December 2020. pp. 178,182.
As of 2015 Lion Air had a 41.6% share of the domestic airline market. Garuda Indonesia was second with a share of 23.5%. Sriwijaya Air was in third place with a market share of 10.4%. It was followed by low-cost carrier Citilink (a subsidiary of Garuda) with 8.9% and short-haul carrier Wings Air, a subsidiary of Lion Air with 4.7%. The Indonesian subsidiary of Malaysian low-cost airline AirAsia had a 4.4% share.
Overall the lion's share of the Indonesian domestic airline market is currently controlled by two groups: Lion Air (43%) and Garuda Indonesia (37%)30.
There are certain times in Indonesia - Pulang Kampung (Indonesian for "homecoming"), when there is a mass migration of big city residents to their hometowns during or before major holidays, especially during Idul Fitri, the end of the holy month of Ramadan (May). The main problems arise in the largest urban agglomeration Greater Jakarta. Millions of people leave the city by various modes of transport overloading train stations, airports, highways and roads. Particular pressure is placed on the Trans-Java Toll Highway and the highway that runs along the northern coast of Java. According to some estimates about 33 million people travel on unpaved roads alone during this period. Demand for train and airline tickets increases a month or two before Idul Fitri, leading to a surge in prices on the most sought-after days. Airlines are introducing extra flights or using larger planes to cope with demand. Indonesian rail operator Kereta Api Indonesia usually offers extra trips or introduces trains with more cars. Private intercity bus operators usually jack up ticket prices during this period. Millions of buses, cars and motorcycles clog roads and highways, creating kilometer-long traffic jams.
The COVID-19 pandemic
Indonesia, like other countries around the world, is severely affected by pandemic COVID-19. As of the end of September 2021 more than 4.2 million people in Indonesia had been infected. Over 140000 people have died. By the mid of October 2021 Indonesia was the 14th most infected country in the world with coronavirus31.
The pandemic has made adjustments in almost all aspects of the country's economic and social life. GDP in 2020 is down 2.1% from 2019, compared to an average annual GDP growth rate of over 5% in 2011-201932.
The economic problems affect the transport sector. For example, passenger traffic on domestic flights fell by 2.6 times in 2020 and international air passenger traffic decreased by more than 5 times compared to 201933. Inter-island cargo traffic at four major seaports (Tanjung Priok, Tanjung Perak, Belavan and Makasar) decreased by 15% in 2020 compared to 201934. Passenger traffic on the country's railroads fell 2.5 times in the same period and freight traffic dropped by 16%35.
30 List of airlines of Indonesia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Indonesia (10.04.2021)
31 Coronavirus. Indonesia. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/indonesia/. (20.10.2021)
32 Statistical Yearbook of Indonesia 2021. Pp. 1-2.
33 Calculated by: Economic Indicators. Monthly Statistical Bulletin. December 2020. Pp. 182-183. Arrival Data.
34 Calculated by: Economic Indicators. Monthly Statistical Bulletin. December 2020. p. 176.
35 Calculated by: Economic Indicators. Monthly Statistical Bulletin. December 2020. p. 184.
Amid the pandemic it is difficult to predict the further development of the economic situation in Indonesia. However it is already clear that some of the Indonesian leadership's ambitious plans in the transport sector will be reconsidered and some of the most expensive projects may even be frozen. A prolonged socio-economic crisis is very likely. Therefore how quickly the country recovers from the COVID-19 pandemic and how effectively the authorities cope with its consequences will largely determine the further development of the country's economy and transport in particular.
References
1. Indikator Ekonomi Desember 2020/ Economic Indicators December 2020. Buletin Statistik Bulanan / Monthly Statistical Bulletin. Jakarta, 2021.
2. Statistik Indonesia 2021 / Statistical Yearbook of Indonesia 2021. Jakarta, 2021.
3. Akimov A.V. Maritime Transport in Asia: A Brief Statistical Essay. Eastern Analytics. Issue 3, 2020. Moscow, Institute of Oriental Studies, pp.15-27.
4. Efimova L.M. Indonesia's "Maritime World Fulcrum" and China's "Maritime Silk Road". MGIMO Review of International Relations. Moscow 2015;(6(45)), pp. 196-204.
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3. Coronavirus. Indonesia. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/ indonesia/.
4. Indonesia to Build 3000 Km Toll Roads Until 2024. https://theinsiderstories.com/ indonesia-to-build-3000-km-toll-roads-until-2024/
5. Jakarta to Bandung High-Speed Rail. https://www.railway-technology.com/ projects/jakarta-to-bandung-high-speed-rail/
6. Jakarta-Bandung high-speed railway project delayed amid pandemic. https:// www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/04/15/jakarta-bandung-high-speed-railway-project-delayed-amid-pandemic.html
7. Length of roads in Indonesia in 2019. https://www.statista.com/statistics/978198/ indonesia-length-of-streets-by-type/
8. List of airlines of Indonesia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airlines_ of_Indonesia
9. List of airports in Indonesia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airports_ in_Indonesia
10. MRT Jakarta (North-South Corridor). https://kppip.go.id/en/priority-projects/ public-transportation/mrt-jakarta-north-south-corridor/w
11. Passenger forecast estimates 7 billion by 2034. https://airlines.iata.org/agenda/ passenger-forecast-estimates-7-billion-by-2034
12. Rank Order - Waterways. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2 April 2018. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-fact-book/rankorder/2093rank.html
13. RI to adopt ITS gradually starting in 2012. https://en.antaranews.com/news/74080/ ri-to-adopt-its-gradually-starting-in-2012
14. The World Factbook. CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html
15. TransJakarta, the oldest BRT system in Southeast Asia is participating to Busworld. https://devirsaati.com/transjakarta-the-oldest-brt-system-in-southeast-asia-is-par-ticipating-to-busworld
16. World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=ID
17. http://www.finmarket.ru/news/5288910
ИНФОРМАЦИЯ ОБ АВТОРАХ / INFORMATION ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Chesnokova S. - Research Associate, Economic Research Department, IOS RAS, Moscow, Russia.
Чеснокова Светлана Викторовна -
научный сотрудник Отдела экономических исследований ИВ РАН, Москва, Россия
