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Вестник СПбГУ. Востоковедение и африканистика. 2023. Т. 15. Вып. 3
Towards a New Typology of Korean Lexical Blends
T. S. Mozol
Moscow State Linguistic University,
38, ul. Ostozhenka, Moscow, 119034, Russian Federation
For citation: Mozol T. S. Towards a New Typology of Korean Lexical Blends. Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Asian and African Studies, 2023, vol. 15, issue 3, pp. 497-514. https://doi.org/10.21638/spbu13.2023.304
The present research is devoted to neological trends in Korean and focuses especially on the new lexical blends. Languages are constantly creating new words; this is an inevitable process caused by the changes in the world we live. Blending has been considered as a minor word formation process in Korean, but nowadays blending in Korean can be viewed as a separate word formation process due to its increasing productivity and semantic change in resulting blends. This paper first discusses the status of blends in the word formation system, then the theoretical framework and the results of the analysis of Korean blends are presented. The paper analyzes from the quantitative and qualitative perspective 301 blends collected from the National Institute of the Korean Language Dictionaries of Neologisms. Our analysis of the dictionaries showed that blending has become a highly productive and common way of word formation for various lexical layers in Korean. An increasing speed of foreign borrowing, high productivity of clipping and compounding in Korean can be viewed as the factors related to this process to a certain extent. This paper proposes a classification of blends from a semantic and cognitive viewpoint (coordinative, determinative, and derived blends are based on the mirror, single-scope, double-scope, and double blending models).
Keywords: lexical blend, blend neologism, Korean neologisms, conceptual integration, word-formation tendencies in Korean.
Introduction
Languages are constantly creating new words; this is an inevitable process caused by the changes in the world we live. A growing cognitive complexity of the world and its cognition corresponds to an increasing complexity of the content and structure of linguistic signs and forms, that is why the role of hidden meanings is enhanced, the degree of compression of linguistic signs is increasing, special ways of convolution of conceptual structures are being created [1, p. 6].
The naming act is a cognitive phenomenon relying on the intellectual capacities of a coiner [2, pp. 212-213]. The traditional classification of word-formation processes is based on purely formal criteria, i. e. on the external form of naming units. Consequently, it does not reflect the "interactions" within the word-formation component. Therefore, it appears to be more appropriate to classify the processes leading to new naming units by reflecting the mutual interaction between the concept-grounded onomasiological level and the morpheme-grounded onomatological level, i. e. by interrelating the supra- and intralinguistic levels. This makes it possible to view all new naming units as resulting from the identically grounded acts of coining.
© St. Petersburg State University, 2023
Traditionally, blending has been considered as a minor word formation process ([27], etc.) and a rather irregular linguistic phenomenon [8]. However, some recent investigations into blending in a variety of languages suggest that many of its core features are in fact linguistically significant and possibly a part of speakers' mental grammar [9, p. 1]. Even though blends have been marginalized in linguistics as a word formation process, they are widely used in many languages. Notably, many South Korean researchers argue that blending in modern Korean can be viewed as a separate word formation process due to its increasing productivity and semantic change in resulting blends ([10-16], etc.).
In this paper, we will focus on blending in Korean as a highly productive word formation process. Nowadays blending has become common for various lexical layers and different types of discourse in Korean (media language, advertisements, product and brand names, internet slang, new technical and scientific terms and so on), instances of blending in Korean has multiplied exponentially in the 21st century. This paper aims not only to describe the new Korean blends, but it also proposes their classification from the viewpoint of semantics and the cognitive process of their creation.
Blending as a type of word formation in Korean
There is no consensual definition of blends among linguists. There are many different approaches to the definition of the term "blend". Various descriptions of blends can be summarized as follows.
Blends combine parts of lexical source words, rather than whole source words; this distinguishes them from compounds. Morphological structure is not particularly relevant to blends [17, p. 75]. Blends are the one-off product of two parent words which seem to be merged into one another. There can be total interpenetration, morphology permitting, where both parent words contribute equally to the blend. There can also be concatenation with various degrees of interpenetration. Blends formation is subjected to various constraints and is caused by a general tendency to abbreviate denominations and also, probably, by a playful linguistic tradition [18, p. 3]. A new blend coinage resulted from two motivating words is unanalyzable into a fixed meaning [19, p. 26]. That is, we don't have the original entities any longer, we rather produce something that is halfway between them and therefore new, it inherits some features from the inputs, shared or not, but some novel and unexpected features appear [20, p. 176].
In this paper, blending is considered as an independent way of word formation that differs from abbreviation and compounding. As Lee Seoun Yeong [14] points out, abbreviation is a shortened form of a word that is used in place of the full phrase or sentence, the meaning of abbreviation is transparent. In contrast, the meaning of a blend is non-transparent. The meaning of a blend is not a simple sum of the meanings of its components. Blends also have structural and semantic differences from compounds. Compounds are made from independent lexical items that can occur themselves, the semantic meaning of compounds in Korean is usually much more transparent in comparison with blends.
Lexical blending has become an important source of neologisms in Korean. The creation of new lexical items has become a productive word-formation device, both in written and spoken language, and in recent years its productivity has risen steadily. According to the data of the National Institute of the Korean Language, the proportion of blends in Korean is growing every year: in 2001 instances of blends among new words in Korean
accounted for only 1 %, in 2010 — 15.79 %, and in 2018 — reached 32 % and became the most productive type of word-formation for new Korean words (derivation — 20.3 %, compounding — 16.2 %, clipping — 16.2 %) [21-23].
Brdar-Szabo and Brdar [21] pointed out that there are two main kinds of factors that influence the creation of blended words. The first group of factors is related to the structural characteristics of a language and concerns the presence or absence of the compounding and clipping word formation models. It is commonly held that compounding, clipping and blending are related, i. e. the lesser productivity of a language in terms of compounding shall also translate to blending. The number of compounds and blends are, therefore, proportional. The second cluster of factors concerns the dynamics and flexibility of a language, i. e. the speed at which foreign or borrowed lexemes are adapted and integrated into the system of the recipient language. Therefore, the more closed and less flexible the language system is, the less common the occurrence of blends is.
Compounding and clipping are quite productive word formation models in Korean. As mentioned above, the neologisms coined through compounding and clipping in 2018 made up about 16.2 % each. These types of word-formation were the third popular way of forming neologisms in Korean. Lexical blends are characterized by comprising both clipping and compounding and according to Brdar-Szabo and Brdar [20], a high productivity of clipping and compounding in a language contributes to the emergence of lexical blends.
Moreover, the increasing productivity of blending in Korean can be explained by the excessive lexical borrowing from English and the influence of the English language [24, p. 171].
As is widely known, blending is one of the most common ways of new words creation in English [2; 17; 25; 26]. Bauer [27, p. 38] focusing on the different categories of new words points to a significant rise in the number of blends as opposed to a decrease in the number of words created by suffixation. Some researchers consider blending to be the most typical way of word formation in English [17; 28].
In the beginning of the 21st century most of the new words were formed from the lexemes and morphemes of Chinese origin (according to the National Institute of Korean Language, 79 % of all neologisms in 2001 were formed by lexemes and morphemes of Chinese origin), but less than 20 years later in 2018 most of the new words (67 %) began to form on the basis of borrowed words and morphemes [21; 23]. Borrowing (especially from English) plays an important role in the neologization processes in Korean. The borrowing of words and morphemes from English is also associated with the borrowing of morphological models, including the activation of blending mechanisms in new word formation (about connection between borrowing and morphological models, see Haspelmath [29]).
Most of the blends in Korean appeared as a result of borrowing from English, while they were not perceived by native Korean speakers as blends, but as borrowed words with a certain meaning. However, in the 21st century, various lexical layers (native Korean words, Sino-Korean words, borrowed words, etc.) began to be actively involved in blending processes, while a large number of blends are created on the basis of English borrowings. The increase in the productivity of blending in Korean in the 21st century also indicates the accelerated pace of modern life and the tendency towards compactness of the verbal designation of new realities. The ease with which speakers can produce new blends may be also attributed to the fact that this process is not heavily constrained by any
grammatical restrictions. High productivity of blends in Korean can be also explained by the spread of social networks, cell phones and other means of mediated communication, in which the principle of linguistic economy is essential.
Theoretical foundations for cognitive analysis of blends
Lexical blends are a difficult conceptual problem for many theories of language. Despite the interest they attract due to their creative nature and their typological unusualness, lexical blends have been little more than a footnote in the study of morphology in modern linguistics. Blending poses a very difficult problem for building-block theories for several reasons. Although blending seems to require compositionality, morpheme boundaries found in the source elements do not only necessarily coincide in the target, but in fact they are not even relevant to the structure of the blend. The blend is not really composed of morphemes in the sense of recurrent minimal meaningful parts, but of phonological strings that trigger meanings. The general effect of phonological similarities in blends, including the effect of syllable structure, makes them very hard to handle with traditional grammatical machinery. The number of similar structures can vary a great deal, so it is impossible to state a general formal rule that will license some blends and exclude others [17, pp. 70, 76-77].
The cognitive approach to linguistic semantics views lexical meaning not only as a static repository of information, but it also takes into account cognitive processes associated with awareness of the available information volume, with the realization of meanings in real discursive use, with the adequacy of situational use of linguistic and extralinguistic information, and with transformation and creative operation of meanings. Conceptual blending is assumed to be one of the most basic cognitive processes operative in many areas of human activity, from the interpretation of metaphors and metonymies, the gram-maticalization of new constructions, idioms and phraseology to the organization of complex narratives. The blend can be used to provide inferences, emotional content, rhetorical force, and novel conceptualization. Conceptual blending plays a role in many types of cognitive phenomena [30, p. 256].
G. Fauconnier and M. Turner introduced the theory of conceptual integration. The theory of conceptual integration postulates the four-space model. Such integration networks include at least two input spaces, a generic space — a conceptual space that provides the ground for the integration and applies to both or all inputs, and a blended space — the space in which the conceptual product is constructed. That is the "conceptual integration", a cognitive process that operates in "mental spaces", defined as the small conceptual packets constructed as we think and talk, for purposes of understanding and action [31, p. 40]. The mechanism of conceptual integration is built on blending, in which structure from input spaces is projected to a "blended" space. The blend inherits partial structure from the input spaces and has emergent structure of its own [32, p. 133].
The result of the conceptual blending of two domains in not the sum of the source domains. Instead, it is very specific, with aspects selectively taken from the source domains and merged into a functional whole in the blend concept. Lexical blends are just one type of blending, in which form happens to be blended as well as concepts [17, pp. 85, 92].
In the special case of lexical blends, what gets blended is not only concepts but the forms as well [20, p. 177].
Analysis of the corpus of blends neologisms
The subject of the present study is 301 blends-neologisms of the 21st century, obtained by the method of continuous sampling from the dictionaries of neologisms of the Korean National Institute of the Korean language. In terms of thematic relevance, the identified corpus of language units can be attributed to the sphere of everyday life, which at present is inextricably linked to the development of communication technologies.
Blending seems to be a product of creative and rather irregular processes. There is a large literature on lexical blends, much of which consists of copious examples and proposed typologies, with reference to the form of blends [33-38], but lexical blends are so varied in form that no neat taxonomy can do justice to the full range of the phenomenon [17, p. 71].
Korean researchers Lim [39] and Noh [10] proposed Korean blend classifications on the basis of semantic and syntactic features. Lim classified blends into synonymic, coordinative and collocational. According to Lim [39], synonymic blends are formed by the words with similar meaning, coordinative blends include words that are in modifying relations, and collocational blends are the blends originated from the phrase or sentence. Noh [10] classified blends into paradigmatic ones and syntagmatic ones. In paradigmatic blends, two existing words have the same distribution and occur between the words that could be included in the same semantic field. In syntagmatic blends, two existing words can form a phrase and be in the modifying relation.
We will distinguish the following main types of Korean blends1 based on the classification of the conceptual integration networks developed by G. Fauconnier [31], as well as the classifications of Lim [39] and Noh [10]. This classification will allow for a fuller presentation of the existing blends in terms of their semantic features as well as the features of the cognitive processes involved in their formation.
Coordinative blends
In this type of blends, both source words are equally semantically significant. The source words belong to the same semantic field and are in paradigmatic semantic relations. In this type of blends the source-words have the same distribution and belong to the same semantic field. This type of blends can be described with the mirror integration network.
All spaces in this network — inputs, generic, and blend share an organizing frame. An organizing frame for a mental space is a frame that specifies the nature of the relevant activity, events, and participants. The input spaces mirror each other in the sense that they have the same organizing frame. So does the generic space. The blended space also has that frame, but often, in the blend, the common organizing frame of the network inheres in a yet richer frame that only the blend has [31, p. 123].
1 Korean-made English blends (hybrid words that are born and made in Korea, so-called Konglish) are also included. Blends with two English-sourced elements that are coined in Korea are also regarded as a part of Korean lexicon. As J. Kiaer and A. Bordilovskaya state, this kind of words are also "valuable linguistic currency" for capturing contemporary Korean culture, and hence indispensable asset in the Korean lexicon [40, p. 3].
Related concepts of the same semantic group
This group includes blends formed from words with a common thematic paradigm. Here are a few examples of such blends from our corpus (Table 1).
Table 1. Blends with a common thematic paradigm
Blend Source words Meaning Thematic paradigm
3 3 Jeomjeo 3X1 + n^i + Lunch + Dinner Linner Meal
43 Ajeom 33 + Breakfast + Lunch Brunch Meal
Rabokki 33+3^3 Ramyon + Tteokbokki (Stir-fried rice cake) Stir-fried rice cake with ramen noodles Dish
Jjolbokki +3^3 Jjolmyeon + Tteokbokki (Stir-fried rice cake) Stir-fried cake with spicy cold chewy noodles Dish
3-33 Rajebi 33+t33 Ramyeon + Sujebi Hand-pull dough soup with ramen noodles Dish
Jjapageti 333 + ¿333 Jajangmyeon + Spagetti Black-bean sauce noodles cooked with ramen noodles Dish
Halppa Grandfather + Daddy Grandfather who is raising his grandchildren Male relative
t3 Halma + ^K Grandmother + Mummy Grandmother who is raising her grandchildren Female relative
tf|S.&]7> Daefrika +4^33 Daegu + Africa Extremely hot Daegu Geographic location
Taekwonrobic + Taekwondo + Aerobics Taekwondo aerobics Sport
^^ffl / Helseurobik + 33^ Health + Aerobics Healthrobic, fitness with aerobic exercises Sport
3^3 Gaegeuunson + Gagman + Announcer Witty funny announcer, announcer-entertainer Profession
Here is an example of the mirror network for the blend Daefrika — (ex-
tremely hot Daegu) (Fig. 1).
Antonymic concepts
Blends can combine source words belonging to the antonymic paradigm. Such blends are less common because of their semantic specificity. For example, utpeuda — (funny and sad at the same time, tragicomic) (Fig. 2).
Fig. 1. Blend tf|i&]7> (Daefrika)
Fig. 2. Blend (Funny and sad)
Synonymic concepts
Source words belonging to a synonymic paradigm can be combined into blends. For example, jal saengppeuda — ^^M^ (handsome + pretty, good-looking) (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Blend -a^Jffl.^ (Good-looking (man/woman))
It should be noted that only one example of blends with source words belonging to the antonymic or synonymic paradigm was found in the corpus (for more examples of blends with source words with synonymous paradigm see Lim [39, pp. 194-196]). The vast majority of the examples of the coordinative blends with paradigmatic relations are formed by source words belonging to the same thematic group.
Determinative blends
In determinative blends, one source word describes another source word, bringing additional meaning. That is, the source-words can form a phrase. The source words in this type of blend are in syntagmatic relations.
This type of blends can be explained by the single-scope networks. A single-scope network has two input spaces with different organizing frames, one of which is projected to organize the blend. Its defining property is that the organizing frame of the blend is an extension of the organizing frame of one of the inputs but not the other.
Additional meaning
New properties
In blends of this type there is a combination of two source words denoting a phenomenon and its description, i. e. not just an equal combination of equal semantic weight, but a more detailed elaboration of one of them. One source word denotes a phenomenon or object, and the other one specifies it, describes it (Table 2).
Table 2. Blends with additional meaning (new properties)
Blend Source words Meaning
Molkangseu +33^ Shopping mall + Vacance Vacation spent in the shopping malls
Teokseukeu Ц + ^>¿3 Chin + Mask Mask brought down to the chin
Ipseukeu + Mouth + Mask Mask brought down under the nose
Ä3 3 Motiket £33 33 3 Mobile + Etiquette Phone etiquette
433 Saicheo + 3^ Cyber + Teacher Remote (online) teacher
Seuposyumeo + 343 Sports + Consumer Sport consumer
3433 Edyusiteo 34333 + 333 33 Education + Baby sitter Nursery governess
Kaepocheu 343 +¿12 Casual + Sports Casual sportswear
Mollaebaiteu ^ + Secretly + Part-time job Secret or illegal part-time job
Meokseolting 33 3 + 333 Food + Consulting Tips for eating well
Here is an example of the determinative blend with additional meaning teokseukeu — (mask brought down to the chin) (Fig. 4).
Metaphor (evaluative meaning)
This type of blends is built on the likening of one concept or phenomenon to another. As a rule, metaphorical blends express an evaluative meaning (Table 3).
Here is an example of the determinative blend with additional meaning jiokcheol — = (overcrowded subway) (Fig. 5).
Cause and effect compression
There is nothing more basic in human life than cause and effect. It is not trivial to bring cause and effect together. They have to be brought together in one mental space, in
Fig. 4. Blend Ц:
. (Mask brought down to the chin)
Table 3. Blends with evaluative meaning
Blend Source words Meaning
AAA Giregi AA + ^AA Journalist + Garbage Yellow press journalist
Nailliji + A^AA Age + Mileage Age privileges
Taeksukja ^A +^A Taxi + Homeless person Taxi driver living in his car
Beopkkuraji ^ + A^AA Law + Loach Philadelphia lawyer
Jiokcheol A^ + AAA. Hell + Subway Overcrowded subway
Keomdosa ^A + Computer + Ascetic Computer guru, computer expert
Fig. 5. Blend (Overcrowded subway)
Table 4. Blends with cause and effect compression
Blend Source words Meaning
Ratokseu + S^i Ramen, instant noodles + Botox Anti-aging effect of late-night ramen
Tellereugi Television + Allergy TV fatigue
the right way, while being kept distinct in other spaces [31, p. 76]. This type of blends can be explained by a double-scope network that has inputs with different organizing frames as well as an organizing frame has an emergent structure of its own. In such networks, both organizing frames make central contribution to the blend and their differences offer the possibility of rich clashes. Far from blocking the construction of the network, such clashes offer challenges to the imagination; indeed, the resulting blends can be highly creative. In some double-scope networks, although the blend receives projections of the organizing frame topology from both inputs, the organizing frame of the blend is nonetheless an extension of the organizing frame of only one input [31, pp. 131, 134].
Below are some examples of blends with cause-and-effect compression (Table 4).
Fig. 6. Blend (Antiaging effect of late night ramen)
In the blend ratokseu s}-^^ (Botox effect after eating late night ramen) both inputs (ramen and Botox) are projected (Fig. 6).
Derived blends
Some of the reduced forms of the source words (a second part of the second input word that remains after reduction as usual) function as productive affixes (-^/-ting, -i^/-hollik, -^^/-tijeun, -3l3/-tek, -^/-neunim, -^/-tel, -^^/-rella, ^/-parachi, -3l°l^i/-teineo, -^/-dol, -3l^/-sekkwon, -^^/-nuenim, -^5j/-tong-nyeong, -^^/-kanseu, etc.) in new words formed on the basis of the analogy mechanism. That is a particular blend can form the nucleus of a new analogical word formation process that can generate a whole family of words and ultimately, a newly entrenched bound morpheme [17, p. 69].
These forms have not yet achieved the degree of frequency necessary to claim a productive pattern or paradigm, that is these morphemes don't have the status of affixes in Korean at the present time. But due to their high productivity we can suggest that their grammaticalization process is in progress.
As D. Kastovsky claims [41, p. 194], if the number of such analogical formations increases and if one constituent loses some of its semantic specificity, such analogical patterns may eventually develop into a rule.
The creation of a blend does not necessarily result in new analogical formations. It depends on whether the splinter, that is, the truncated word, becomes productive, and since the productivity is a matter of degree, there can be a scale from highly productive splinters to splinters that have been used only once. However, the question whether and when such reduced forms (splinters) become productive remains and appears highly depend on non-linguistic, mostly chance factors [42, p. 4-5].
For example,
• -AA] (-parachi) from the word AAA] (paparazzi)
AAA] (A + AAA] / car + paparazzi) / car paparazzi; ^AA] (^A17 + AAA] / garbage + paparazzi) / a person that takes photos of fly-tipping and reports to authorities; AAA] (+ AAA] / spy + paparazzi) / a person that takes photos and reports on suspects of espionage; t^A] (tAIA + AAA] / karaoke + paparazzi) / a person that takes photos and reports on illegal karaoke; AAA] (A^ + AAA] / private educational institute + paparazzi) / a person that takes photos and reports on illegal private schools; ^AA] + AAA] / army + paparazzi) / a person that takes photos and reports physical abuse or malpractice conducted in military barracks.
• -€A (-rella) from the word AAl€A (Cinderella)
(^ + AAHA / Candy + Cinderella) / Candyrella2; (^ +
AAl^A / army + Cinderella) / Military Cinderella (nickname of the popular Korean football player Lee Jeonghyeop)3; ^A^A (A^A + AAl^A / middle aged woman + Cinderella) / successful middle aged woman; + AAl^A/
Korean sausage 'sundae' + Cinderella) / Korean blood sausage master, name of Korean street food restaurant.
• -Al^ (-sekkwon) from the word (station district)
^AM (^A + ^AlA / park + station district) / area adjacent to a park; ^AlA + ^AlA / McDonald's + station district) / area adjacent to McDonald's; + ^AlA / clinic + station district) area adjacent to a hospital; AA1A (A + / mountain + station district) / area adjacent to a mountain;
#A1A (# + / forest + station district) / area adjacent to a forest; AA1A
(A^-/AA + <^A1A / school + station district) / area adjacent to a school; ^AlA (^A^^ + ^AlA / Starbucks + station district) / area adjacent to a Starbucks; ■^AlA + / shopping mall + station district) / area adjacent to
a shopping mall; ^AlA (^17 + ^AlA / burger + station district) / area adjacent to McDonald's or Burger King; ^AlA (^A + ^AlA / court + station district) area adjacent to a Court.
• (-neunim) from the wordA—^! (God)
] — ^ (]A + A—^ / chicken + God) / very delicious chicken; — (AA + A—^ / doctor + God) / talented doctor; ^ — ^ (^^A + A—^ / Kim Yuna + God) / outstanding figure skater Kim Yuna; 7 — ^! (+ A—^ / Park Jisung
2 Character that combines strong-willed Candy, that overcomes all the difficulties, and kind, gentle Cinderella waiting for her prince.
3 Lee Jeonhyeop played for the military football club while doing his mandatory military duty. He was a surprise pick by the head coach Uli Stielike for the Asian Cup, he scored two goals in the tournament and helped Korea take second place. Lee Jeonhyeop is often mentioned as a rising star of the Korean football.
+ God) / outstanding football player Park Jisung; 4—^! (44M + / Yu
Jaeseok + God) / outstanding TV presenter Yu Jaeseok; (M^^ +
/ Pororo + God) / very popular animation character Pororo.
• (-tongnyeong) from the word ' (president)
S^j (h^^ + / Twitter + president) / Twitter influencer;
+ / army + president) / musicians popular among Korean army soldiers
and reserve forces; (^ + / dance + president) / the greatest dancer; ^
^ej (+ ^^ej / rock + president) / the greatest rock singer; (^ + /
rap + president) / the greatest rap singer; M^j (M^^ + / Pororo + pres-
ident) / very popular animation character Pororo.
• (-kanseu) from the word (vacance)
/ golf + vacance) / golf vacation, +
/ hotel +vacance) / spending vacation only in a hotel; (31^1 + / lei-
sere sports+ vacance) / leisure-active vacation; + / outlet
+ vacance) / spending vacation in outlets; + / department
store + vacance) / spending vacation in department stores; +
— / alone + vacance) / spending vacation alone; (^ + / taste + va-
cance) spending vacation in famous restaurants; + / moll
+ vacance) / spending vacation in shopping malls; (4 + 4^— / book +
vacance) / spending vacations reading; (^ + 4^— / home + vacance)
spending vacations at home.
The meaning of the first source word is transferred to the final part — that is, to -31 (-sekkwon), (-tol), -3l°14 (-teineo), — (-kanseu), etc. Derived blends are constructed on a polysyllabic parent word by semantic reanalysis, segmentation and mor-phemisation, and transfer of meaning to the last part and paradigmatic permutation of the first part. The last part of the parent word carries the meaning of the whole and serves as a basis for the new series [18, pp. 6-7]. The creation of blends and new subsequent forms triggers the mechanisms of semantic generalization, and the last source morpheme acquires a superordinate status.
The clear-cut blends may give rise to a more or less productive process of word formation. The starting point of such process can be called "creative" because it implies a conscious process of word coining. In the subsequent stages, however, the process is clearly no longer fully conscious and slips into the unconscious process of normal, productive word formation [43, p. 7]. It can be assumed that the phenomenon of blending stimulates the gradual grammaticalization. The meaning of such blends became more predictable, and as Noh [10] points out this pattern can't be regarded as a typical blend. The word-formation model of this type can be called double blending according to the principle of analogy [44, p. 113]. The newly formed blend retains the type of cognitive network that was in the original blend. This model can be represented as follows (Fig. 7).
Conclusion
Blending, which was not previously characteristic of the Korean language, has become the most productive method of word formation in the Korean language in recent years, as evidenced by the analysis of the data collected for this study.
Fig. 7. Double blend w^a^ (Successful middle aged woman)
This has been influenced by various factors, including the rapid growth of borrowing words and morphemes from English, which, among other things, has led to a certain degree of borrowing morphological patterns from English. Blending comprises both elements of compounding and clipping. A high productivity of compounding and clipping in Korean has also contributed to the emergence of new lexical blends. In addition, modern realities such as the proliferation of mediated communication (the Internet, cell phones, etc.) require a language to be economical in terms of using linguistic means, that has also influenced the spread of blending.
This paper proposed a classification that takes into account the cognitive and semantic features of blends on the basis of the classifications of lexical blends previously developed by Korean linguists in terms of semantics and syntax and the theory of cognitive integration.
In this paper we classified: 1) coordinative blends with pragmatic relations built on the basis of mirror cognitive networks (concepts from the same semantic group: antonyms, synonyms); 2) determinative blends: a) blends with the first source word conveying additional meaning: new properties of the object or evaluative meaning (built on the basis of the single scope cognitive network); b) blends with cause-and-effect compression built on the basis of double scope networks; 3) derived blends built of the basis of the double blending analogical model.
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Received: July 8, 2022 Accepted: June 30, 2023
Author's information:
Tatiana S. Mozol — PhD in Pedagogy, Associate Professor; yoondanhee@gmail.com
Новая классификация блендов корейского языка
Т. С. Мозоль
Московский государственный лингвистический университет, Российская Федерация, 119034, Москва, ул. Остоженка, 38
Для цитирования: Mozol T. S. Towards a New Typology of Korean Lexical Blends // Вестник Санкт-Петербургского университета. Востоковедение и африканистика. 2023. Т. 15. Вып. 3. С. 497-514. https://doi.org/10.21638/spbu13.2023.304
Статья посвящена исследованию неологических процессов в корейском языке на примере блендов-неологизмов. Новые слова постоянно возникают во всех языках мира,
что обусловлено неизбежными изменениями в мире, в котором мы живем. Долгое время считалось, что блендинг является периферийным способом словообразования в корейском языке, однако в настоящее время он может рассматриваться как самостоятельный продуктивный способ словообразования современного корейского языка в связи со значительным ростом количества лексических блендов, а также семантических изменений, отмечаемых в неологизмах, сформированных по данному способу. В статье рассмотрена специфика блендинга как способа словообразования, систематизированы результаты теоретических исследований, необходимых для дальнейшего изучения блендов, а также представлены результаты анализа корпуса блендов корейского языка. Для проведения исследования был составлен корпус из 301 бленда корейского языка начала XXI в., отобранных из словарей неологизмов Национального института корейского языка. Анализ словарей неологизмов позволяет сделать вывод о том, что блендинг стал высокопродуктивным и широко распространенным способом словообразования в современном корейском языке. Постоянный рост количества иностранных заимствований, а также высокая продуктивность усечения и словосложения в корейском языке могут рассматриваться в качестве факторов, в определенной степени способствовавших росту продуктивности блендинга. В данной работе предложена классификация блендов с семантической и когнитивной точек зрения, на основе которой были выделены сочинительные, атрибутивные и деривативные бленды, образованные на основе зеркальной, монокомпонентной и поликомпонентной моделей, а также модели двойного блендинга.
Ключевые слова: лексический бленд, бленд-неологизм, неологизмы корейского языка, концептуальная интеграция, тенденции в корейском словообразовании.
Статья поступила в редакцию 8 июля 2022 г., рекомендована к печати 30 июня 2023 г.
Контактная информация:
Мозоль Татьяна Сергеевна — канд. пед. наук, доц.; yoondanhee@gmail.com
