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ДОХОЛЯН С.В.
ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКИЕ АСПЕКТЫ ПОВЫШЕНИЯ КОНКУРЕНТОСПОСОБНОСТИ
ОТРАСЛЕЙ ЭКОНОМИКИ РЕГИОНА
Аннотация. В настоящей статье рассматриваются основные этапы эволюционного развития теорий конкурентоспособности, начиная от классической теории сравнительных издержек да современной теории конкурентных преимуществ. Разработана система факторов макросреды, определяющих конкурентоспособность отраслей экономики на уровне региона. Дана сравнительная характеристика типовых конкурентных стратегий. Предлагается вариант модели, отличающийся рассмотрением процесса создания ценностей не только с позиций основных и вспомогательных источников формирования потребительской стоимости, но и с точки зрения подсистем менеджмента организации. Делается вывод о том, что конкурентоспособность отрасли экономики на уровне региона интегрируется из конкурентоспособности отдельных организаций, которая, в свою очередь, определяется структурой рынка, параметрами факторов внутриотраслевой конкуренции, имеющимися и потенциальными возможностями организации, а также реализуемой конкурентной стратегией.
Ключевые слова: теория конкурентоспособности, теория сравнительных издержек, теория конкурентных преимуществ, факторы макросреды, отрасли экономики, регион, модель, процесса создания ценностей, менеджмент организации, рынок, стратегия.
DOKHOLYAN S.V.
THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF COMPETITIVENESS IMPROVEMENT OF ECONOMIC INDUSTRIES IN THE REGION
Исследование, выполнено при финансовой поддержке Российского гуманитарного научного фонда (проект№ 13-02-00094a).
Abstract. The present manuscript discusses the main stages of the evolutionary development of theories of competitiveness starting from the classic theory of comparative costs to the modern theory of competitive advantages. A system of macro environmental factors has been developed. Those factors determine the competitive ability of economic industries at the regional level. A comparative characteristic of typical competitive strategies is given. A version of a model is suggested that differs by the way it considers the process of creating values, not only from the position of the main and auxiliary sources of forming the consumer cost, but also from the point of view of sub systems of the management of an organization. A conclusion is made about the fact that competitiveness of the field of economy at the regional level is integrated from the competitive ability of separate organizations that, in turn, is determined by the structure of the market, parameters of factors of competitiveness inside the industry, available and potential abilities of the organization, as well as the competitive strategy being implemented.
Keywords: theory of competitiveness, theory of comparative costs, theory of competitive advantages, factors of the macro-environment, economic industries, a region, a model, process of creating values, organizational management, a market, a strategy.
The problem of stabilization and subsequent development of economy of the state is inseparably connected with the issues of improving competitive ability of enterprises, saturation of the consumer market with high quality products which predetermines the study of a number of economic categories characterizing the market economy. One of such categories is competitiveness.
The term of "competitiveness" is presently continuously used both in special economic literature devoted to the goals, tasks, problems of formation of the market economy in Russia, and in periodicals that publicize the process of reforming domestic economy. Still, it should be noted that the world economic theory and practice accumulated significant experience of studies in the field of competitiveness that is available for adaptation and implementation in domestic conditions. [4]
The earliest studies in the field of competitiveness of national economy are customary to be connected with the theory of comparative costs by D. Ricardo (end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries). According to the principle of comparative advantages that the scientist distinguished, it is more suitable for countries to produce and export products that are relatively cheaper for them, and import those products that are produced overseas relatively cheaper than inside the country. Therefore, each state specializes on producing such products which have labor costs comparatively lower, however, in absolute values, taking into account transportation costs, customs duties, etc. the costs
can sometimes be even somewhat higher than those abroad [10].
Modern economists have significantly modified the classic theory of comparative costs. They usually accept the law of comparative costs by Ricardo, but reject the labor theory of costs, substituting it for theories of supply and demand, marginal utility and factors of production. Schemes and quantitative models of comparative costs given in the writings of economists Neo Keynesians P. Ellsworth, M. Clement, R. Harrod, neo classicists J. Meed, Ch. Kindlebergner, etc. are based on theories of factors of production [13, 15]. Their models are shown as graphs describing quantitative dependencies in export and import of products when countries are specializing on overseas trade (curves of indifference, diagrams of production capabilities with continuously changing production capacities before and after the start of trading, etc).
P. Ellsworth, J. Wainer, H. Killow et al state that trade between developed countries is close to the theoretical model of comparative costs [13]. According to their theories, international trade is based on rational principles of mutual profitability and is profitable for each state. At the same time, the bigger the difference in comparative costs of two or several countries, the bigger is the profit from the international division of labor.
Modification of the theory of comparative costs into the theory of comparative advantages is connected with the written work of representatives of the early Stockholm school - Swedish economist E. Heckscher and his student B. Ohlin. The substance of conclusions that they have made comes to the fact that a country is exporting goods where surplus resources of production are used most effectively, and is importing goods with the factors of production in deficit. At the same time, international trade equalizes prices for factors of production. Graphs and diagrams given by Heckscher and Ohlin are to prove that each product uses up the same amount of capital and labor, i.e. products of different countries become equal in capital capacity and labor intensity. Mathematical description of this theory belongs to scientists of the eclectic mathematical focus area P. Samuelson and V.Stolper (the 40s of the 20th century) [11]. G. Haberler, a representative of the Neo Classical school, formulated a principle of comparative advantages in the terms of alternative costs [13].
The study of theories of competitive ability of the post-war period performed allows to make a conclusion that their evolution to a large extent is determined by such a general world phenomenon as growth of impact of the factor of scientific-technical progress on competitiveness of separate companies and whole industries of national economies. In the conditions of uneven development of the scientific-technical potential in different countries, a significant technological break appears between them that stipulates visible non-equivalence of international trade between these groups of countries.
Further development of the theory of comparative advantages is given in the work of V. Leontiev (the 70s of the 20th century). His conclusions that received the name of the paradox of Leontiev were inversely proportionate to the theorem of Heckscher-Ohlin [7]. Leontiev showed on statistical materials of 1947 that despite the common at the time opinion about the redundance of capital in the USA, labor intensive products predominated in the export. This phenomenon is called a paradox because it cannot be explained from the point of view of the popular in the 60-70s theory of comparative advantages. The paradox of Leontiev, according to our opinion, is explained by the fact that by the end of the World War II the USA was practically the only economic super-power1 with high scientific-technical potential, leading in the world market. Thus, at the end of the 1940s the USA concentrated 54.6% of capitalist production, 33% of export, almost 75% of gold reserves due to which they got an opportunity to dictate their own conditions in the overseas market and do more profitable export of labor intensive products [2]. Therefore, it was found that starting from the end of the World War II the minimization of comparative costs was no longer the determining factor in country specialization on production of specific groups of products.
The opposition of the theory of comparative advantages is a number of scientists of the Stockholm School (R. Myrdal) and some economists specializing on economies of "the third world" countries (R.Prebisch, etc). Thus, R. Prebisch notes that according to the aforementioned theory, in the conditions of international labor division, profits from technical progress are equally divided between all countries. This is fair for developed capitalist countries, however such generalization should not be also used for developing countries due to significant differences in the standard of living and the la-
1 not counting the USSR that isolated itself; Great Britain whose production potential was weakened by bombings; Japan and Germany who lost the war; France and Italy who were exhausted by the war
bor productivity level between these countries. In such conditions, if the profits from overseas trade of developed countries increase, the majority of developing countries often loses its export profits which leads to the growth of their foreign debt. For modern Russia these conclusions of scientists seem quite relevant. Representatives of Stockholm and Argentina schools made a significant step ahead in the development of theories of competitiveness: for the first time they raised a question about the factors determining the competitiveness of industries of separate countries.
All aforementioned scientific principles were completely transferred by scientists from the international level into the field of product exchange within the local market and were the theoretical base of evaluating comparative competitiveness of economic subjects of different level: organizations, their associations, industries of the economy.
In the 1980s professor of Harvard Business School M. Porter suggested a theory of competitive advantages, using which he was able to prove not only the consistency of the theory of comparative advantages on the whole, but also to correct its drawbacks.
Analyzing the competitiveness of different organizations of eleven industries of the national economy he starts from the fact that competitiveness of an economic subject is determined not only by its comparative advantage but also by an ability to effectively use resources when creating new values. This concept has been placed as the basis of the theory of competitive advantages of M. Porter [9].
The analysis performed allows to present the stages of development of the theory of competitiveness in a scheme shown in Figure 1.
Harvard school Porter M. Theory of competitive advantages
Stockholm school Myrdal G., Prebisch R. Critical direction of the theory of comparative advantages
Neoclassical school Haberler G. Theory of alternative costs
Eclectic directions, mathematical school Leontiev V., Heckscher E., Ohlin B., Samuelson P. Theory of comparative advantages and its economical-mathematical applications
Neokeyneysian school Harrod R., Ellsworth P., Killow H, etc. Modern theory of comparative costs based on the theory of production factors
Classical school Ricardo D. Classical theory of comparative costs
end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries 1930s 1950s 1960s 1980s
Figure 1. Stages of evolutionary development of the theory of competitiveness
Let us get into more details of the theory of competitive advantages - the most modern, and, in our opinion, the most perfect of the existing theories of competitiveness.
Porter calls productiveness as the criterion of effectiveness of using resources not explaining at the same time what this term means: productivity, efficiency or something else [9]. One of the most important conclusions of the scientist is the fact that the evaluation of the competitiveness of a subject of economy and forming a competitive strategy have to be performed taking into account the structure of the national economy as a whole. At the same time Porter notes that competitive strategy and competitive advantages are determined by two groups of factors:
- external factors - the structural factors of the national economy as a whole and a separate industry (factors of the macro- and meso-environment);
- internal factors - the factors of present and potential abilities of development of the economic subject overall (factors of the micro-environment).
The factors of the macro-environment in the theory of competitive advantages are shown as the so -called "national diamond" of the system whose elements are interacting with each other but either
enhance or weaken the potential level of competitive advantage of industries and organizations of the country discussed [9]. M. Porter distinguishes four such factors:
- the strategy of firms, their structure and rivalry2;
- related and supporting industries3;
- parameters of production factors4;
- demand parameters5.
M. Porter also includes random events6 in the overall system of factors of the macro-environment, as well as governmental actions (monetary-credit, taxation, customs policy, law-making and standard and legal activity) that may either enhance or weaken the competitive advantage of the country.
Modern Russian scientists (for example, Gradov A.P.) suggest complementing "the national diamond" with another condition - a degree of privatization of enterprises and industries of the national economy [16]. However, this suggestion seems extremely opportunistic because we should pay attention not only to the degree but also the quality of privatization. This point is confirmed by a large number of ineffective owners who appeared in Russia after "the wild privatization", the majority of who used resources of managed companies in their own purposes without worrying about increasing the competitiveness and strategic development of companies.
The aforementioned factors of the macro-environment characterize the competitiveness of the closed economy not taking into account world economic relations. However, in modern conditions, economic subjects often face the problem of competitiveness of their products in the domestic market and non competitiveness in the overseas market. In relation to this, it seems necessary to introduce parameters of the international environment in the system of determinants. These parameters significantly impact competitiveness of the base country of the economic subject (organization or industry), and in the context of the issue being discussed, they have to include the following:
- international organization policy (including the IMF) towards the country being discussed;
- the attitude in the world market (or in the country where the products are sold) towards the country discussed and the products made on its territory;
- correlations of national currencies and tendencies of their change;
- world level of quality and prices for similar products;
- the strategy and rivalry of competitors - subjects of the international market.
Besides, it is necessary to re-consider the role of chance in the system of factors of the macroenvironment. As a result of research of scientific literature and production situations a conclusion was made that the random factor impacts not only components of the system itself, as Porter shows, but also the inter-connection between them. Therefore, there is random stochastic environment within which there takes place interaction of all the factors determining the competitiveness of separate industries of national economies in the regional section.
The analysis performed of the typical features of functioning of economic subjects in modern Russian conditions allows to state that overall Porter's conclusions may be transferred from the national to the regional level and used to develop a system of factors determining the competitiveness of industries of the economy of the region.
According to the opinion of modern scientists, a region is a territorial formation that has clearly defined administrative borders, within which social and economic processes of providing livelihood for the population take place depending on the position of the region in the system of territorial and public division of labor [7]. In the context of the present study a region means a territorialadministrative formation defined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation as "the subject of the Federation" [6].
2 inter-industry competition, or competitive fight in "the central ring" where actions and counter-actions of organizations-rivals lead to the creation of new conditions of their functioning
3 industries providing the organization with the necessary materials, semi-finished products and other material goods, as well as information streams
4 material and non-material conditions necessary to form a competitive advantage in production processes of organizations and the country they are based at
5 the need of customers to the quality of goods and services, elasticity of demand by price, income level, cross-elasticity, degree of realization of different social groups of one need or another, national traditions and customs, phases of demand life cycle and other parameters characterizing demand, the value of demand and their dynamics
6 scientific discoveries, technological break-throughs, abrupt price changes for resources, significant changes at world financial markers and currency rates, wars, etc.
In countries similar to Russia in terms of unevenness of development of regions specific features of subjects of the Federation that should be divided into two groups impact the competitiveness of economic industries a lot:
- determinants of competitive potential (the aggregate of resources and the options of their use) of the industry at the regional level that determine the level of factors of production achieved, relative and maintaining industries and the consumer demand;
- conditions determining the further development of the competitive potential.
The following should be considered as the former ones:
- technical and resource base of the industry (fixed assets, land and forests for resource industries, water resources, mineral resources, results of the work of resource industries of the economy for the processing industry);
- labor resources (provision of the industry with human resources);
- production potential of the region (the aggregate result of the economic activity of organizations of an industry of the region);
- investment (the level of investment activity in the region);
- infrastructural factors (infrastructural provision);
- innovative factors (the level of development of science and implementation of achievements of scientific-technical progress in the region);
- characteristics of consumer demand (aggregate purchasing power of the population of the region);
- factors of economic effectiveness (profitability of enterprises of the industry of the economy of the region).
Among the conditions determining the development of determinants of the macro-environment on the regional level it is recommended to distinguish the following:
- political (authority of the local government);
- economic (tendencies in the economic development of the region);
- financial (the volume of tax base);
- social (the level of social tension in the region);
- criminal (the level of criminal activity in the region taking into account the gravity of crimes);
- environmental (the level of contamination of the environment);
- institutional factors (the level of how developed the main institutes of market economy are);
- program-targeted and legal (the order of use of separate factors of production, legal conditions of functioning of organizations of the industry, the existence of regional programs of development of the industry).
As a result of the study performed a system of factors was suggested that determine at the present moment the competitiveness of economic industries at the level of regions shown in figure 2.
СЛУЧАЙНАЯ СТОХАСТИЧЕСКАЯ СРЕДА - Random stochastic environment
МИРОВАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА - World economy
НАЦИОНАЛЬНАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА - National economy
ЭКОНОМИКА РЕГИОНА - the economy of the region
Международная среда - International environment Государство - the state
Региональные органы государственной власти - Regional authorities of the state government
Конкурентная борьба организаций на «центральном ринге» - Competitive fight of organizations in the "central ring"
Параметры факторов - Parameters of factors
Параметры родственных о поддерживающих отраслей - Parameters of related and maintaining industries Параметры факторов - Factor parameters
Детерминанты конкурентоспособности отраслей экономики региона - Determinants of competitiveness of industries of the economy of the region
Детерминанты уровня конкурентного потенциала отрасли - Determinants of the level of competitive potential of the industry техническая и сырьевая база отрасли - technical and resource base of the industry производственный потенциал отрасли - production potential of the industry инвестиционные факторы - investment factors инфраструктур-
ные факторы - infrastructural factors инновационные факторы - innovative factors совокупный потребительский спрос - aggregate consumer demand факторы экономической эффективности - factors of economic effectiveness Детерминанты благоприятности условий для дальнейшего развития конкурентного потенциала отрасли - Determinants of favorable conditions for further development of the competitive potential of the industry политические условия - political conditions тенденции экономического развития региона - tendencies of the economic development of the region финансовые условия - financial conditions социальные условия - social conditions криминальные условия - criminal conditions экологические условия - environmental conditions развитость основных институтов рыночной экономики - development of the main institutes of the market economy программно-целевые факторы - programming-targeting factors
Figure 2. The system offactors of the macro-environment determining the competitiveness of industries of the economy at the regional level
In the process of studying of theoretical sources it was found that at the present moment there is no one single definition of the industry. A. P. Gradov points this out, in particular, in [14], "... the definition of the industry, its borders are quite undetermined". That is why the industry is suggested to be considered in the following way:
- the type of activity of economic subjects characterized by a certain assortment of products made (work, services) that is used for the purposes of satisfying similar needs, performing similar functions or producing from similar types of raw materials as well as using specific parameters of technical, technological and human resources;
- the aggregate of economic subjects of the singular level that are involved in similar economic activity characterized by a certain assortment of products made (work, services) that is used for the purposes of satisfying similar needs, performing similar functions or producing from similar types of raw materials as well as using specific parameters of technical, technological and human resources.
Based on the understanding of the industry as the aggregate of economic subjects of the singular level, competitiveness of the industry of the economy at the level of the region is integrated from the competitiveness of separate organizations that, in turn, is determined by the structure of the market, parameters of factors of the intra-industry competition, available and potential abilities of the organization, as well as the competitive strategy implemented.
The main role in the structural organization of the market is played by a number of producers (sellers) and consumers (buyers) participating in the exchange process, as well as connections between them determining the type of interaction of demand and supply. The latter stipulates the type of interactions between producers (consumers) regarding setting up prices and volumes of supply (demand) of products in the market, that is the character of competition (perfect, oligopolistic, monopolistic, a monopoly). The level of competition between companies is inversely proportional to their ability (determined by the structure of the market) to impact the price.
According to the theory of competitive advantages by M. Porter, shown by him in the form of a conceptual model describing the nature of competition, among the factors of intra-industry competition, the following have the determining meaning:
- competitive pressure from suppliers;
- competitive pressure from buyers;
- competitive pressure from new competitors;
- competitive pressure of producers of products-substitutes;
- competitive fight of organizations in the "central ring".
One of the tasks of an organization is a choice of the competitive position in the industry which determines its approach not only to the most important factors of competitiveness, but to the competition on the whole. Competitive position of an organization depends on the type of a competitive advantage: due to getting lower than competitors' costs or product differentiation.
Low costs reflect the ability of the subject to develop, produce and sell comparable, standardized product with lower than competitors' costs. Differentiation is an ability of an economic subject to provide a buyer with a bigger or different value in the form of a new (different) product of special consumer properties and conditions of consumption [5, 8, 12, 13]. Competitive advantage due to product differentiation or lower costs allows to receive a higher result than competitors get per one used resource unit.
Depending on the way of getting an advantage and the width of satisfaction of needs that an economic subject is oriented on, the theory of competitive advantages considers an alternative of four
typical competitive strategies:
- leadership due to savings on costs;
- differentiation;
- concentration on costs;
- focused differentiation.
In the recent years these four typical strategies started adding a strategy based on the optimal proportion of results and costs.
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
Lower costs Differentiation
SPH ERE S OF COM Satisfaction of mass needs Leadership in costs A: wide Q: standard C: not high P: not high B: mass produced, large batch QW: standard TP: industrial giants, any large companies for their industry Optimal proportion A: typical Q: quite high C: optimal with this preset level of quality P: corresponding to the level of quality and costs B: medium batch QW: from standard to high, depending on the requirements of the technical process TP: companies of medium clusters Differentiation A: specialized Q: high C: high P: high B: medium batch, small batch QW: high TP: companies of medium clusters, marketing type organizations
PETI TIO N Satisfaction of needs of a narrow circle of buyers Concentration on costs A: typical or specialized Q: standard C: low P: not high B: large batch, medium batch QW: standard TP: companies of average clusters Focused differentiation A: narrow specialized Q: very high C: very high P: very high B: small batch, singular QW: very high TP: small organizations, organizations of the marketing type
A - assortment B - batch of production P - price
Q - quality of products
TP - typical company representatives
C - costs
QW - qualification of workers
Figure 3. Comparative characteristic of typical competitive strategies
Each of these strategies represents a concept of competitive success. Figure 3 shows a comparative characteristic of typical competitive strategies based on a comparison of the breadth of assortment of manufactured products, quality of products, amount of costs, prices, batches of production, qualification of workers and typical organizations-representatives.
Since the strategies shown in the scheme contradict each other, an organization has to base its choice on one of the known principles of cost effectiveness:
- achieving the maximum result with the given costs;
- achieving the set result with the minimum costs;
- achieving the maximum effective (optimal) balance of results and costs.
Sources of competitive advantage are in the organization of the whole process of creating a product. M. Porter combines them into the so-called chain of values. According to the impact into creating competitive advantage (consumer cost) they are conventionally divided into primary (main) sources where consumer cost is formed, and secondary (auxiliary) sources where the production cost is formed.
This approach correctly highlights the priority of the structure of needs over the structure of costs, however, it does not take into account subjective factors of consumer evaluations. A variety of a model is suggested that is different due to the process of creating values not only from the position of main and auxiliary sources of forming consumer cost, but also from the point of view of subsystems of the management of the organization shown on figure 4.
The scheme shown in the figure is also complemented by a filter of consumer evaluations of the product, the element of external environment. In this case, in the output of the system of creating values not only production cost is formed, but so is the consumer cost that is determined by the useful-
ness of products from the point of view of end consumers of the products.
According to this model, the main types of activity are the prerogative of the functional subsystem of the organization, and they result in the physical creation of the product (value), its delivery to the market and sales, delivery to the customer and post-sales service. Auxiliary actions are made by the managing and providing sub-systems of the organization.
Planning, organization of processes, accounting, control and regulating are performed on all stages of creating values. To ensure successful functioning of an organization, feedback informational connection between stages of the process is set up.
The process of creating values at the singular economic level is a sub-system of the system of creating values that is formed by suppliers, sales organizations (the sales channel) and buyers (consumers). The competitive advantage and competitive ability of an economic subject are determined by the organization of this whole system including connections between its objects and their management.
The managing and providing subsystems of the organization
Corporate structure and company management
Auxilia- Staff management
ry activity (formati Technology of management and development of managerial solutions Produc-
Resource provision (financial, material and technical, technological) tion cost
on of production Provision of information
Human resource provision
cost) Legal groundwork
Standard procedural guidelines Value (product)
Planning, organization of processes, accounting, control, regulation
i \ i I I ♦ ♦
Functional subsystem of an organization Study of market needs and performing Research and, Development Domestic logistics Production External MTP - Marketing and sales Post-sales servicing —* Consumer evalu ationo f a product > Потреби тельс кая стоимость
1 \ \ < ) > \ f t t $ \ u
feedback
Main activity (forming consumer cost) Figure 4. The process of creating values
The process of creating values of an organization is a sub-system of a system of creating values that is formed by suppliers, sales organizations (the sales channel) and buyers (consumers). The competitive advantage of a company is determined by the organization of this whole system including connections between its objects and their management.
Therefore, we can note that the analysis of theoretical and methodological foundations of development of competitive relations has a special meaning for countries where radical transformations of the economic system are taking place. The main strategic task for them is creating legal and economic conditions for the formation of a competitive environment, the presence or absence of which, in the end, means the presence or absence of a market system.
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