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DOI: https://doi.org/10.18454/RULB.2020.23.3.23
ТЕРМИН «САНСКРИТ» В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ. ИСТОРИЯ ВОЗНИКНОВЕНИЯ
Научная статья
Мартыненко Е.В.1 *, Симонова К.Ю.2
1 ORCID: 0000-0001-5461-8138,
2 ORCID: 0000-0002-7489-2318,
1 Ростовский государственный экономический университет, Ростов-на-Дону, Россия;
2 Сибирский государственный университет физической культуры и спорта, Омск, Россия
* Корреспондирующий автор (lenaart77[at]mail.ru)
Аннотация
Предметом исследования является такой раздел терминологии как «Образование новых терминов». На примере термина «санскрит» прослеживается история возникновения его в английском языке. Для этого в статье подробно прослеживаются этапы знакомства европейцев с древней Индией и ее языком. А так же проводится сравнительный анализ значений этого термина в словарях исходного языка и заимствующего (английского языка). Новизна исследования заключается в том, что изучение проходило на материале одного из древних языков - санскрита. Установлено, что термин «санскрит» был заимствован в английский язык с сужением значения и небольшими искажениями в произношении.
Ключевые слова: санскрит, терминология, сравнительный анализ, заимствование.
THE TERM "SANSKRIT" IN ENGLISH. THE HISTORY OF ORIGIN
Research article
Martynenko Ye.V.1 *, Simonova K.Yu.2
1 ORCID: 0000-0001-5461-8138,
2 ORCID: 0000-0002-7489-2318,
1 Rostov State University of Economics, Rostov-on-Don, Russia;
2 Siberian State University of Physical Education and Sport, Omsk, Russia
* Corresponding author (lenaart77[at]mail.ru)
Abstract
The subject of the research is such a section of terminology as "Formation of new terms". On the example of the term "Sanskrit" the history of the origin in the English language is traced. For this purpose the article depicts in detail the stages of acquaintance of Europeans with ancient India and its language. And a comparative analysis of the meanings of this term in the dictionaries of the source language and the borrowing (English) language is carried out also. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that the study took place on the material of one of the ancient languages - Sanskrit. It is established that the term "Sanskrit" was borrowed in English with a narrowing of meaning and slight distortions in pronunciation.
Keywords: Sanskrit, terminology, comparative analysis, borrowing.
Introduction
Terminology is a means of communication not only for scientists, but also for many specialists in their fields. To be correctly understood and to understand the interlocutor is the main communicative task and, to a greater extent, it concerns international communication. Therefore, one of the main conditions of the term are full meaning and unambiguity. So A.A. Reformatskij in "Introduction to Linguistics" understands by the term "special words, limited by their special purpose; words striving to be unambiguous as an accurate expression of concepts and naming of things" [1, P. 69]. But many terms do not meet this requirement. The question of the ambiguity of the terms has long been faced by scientists. Many scientists write about polysemy, synonymy, homonymy and arbitrary variance of terms in various terminological systems (S.V.Grinev-Grinevich, L.B. Tkacheva, T.L. Kandelaki, V.P. Danilenko, etc.). Often this problem was solved quite categorically — the introduction of an unspoken ban on the use of variants of terms. K.Ya. Averbukh, developing this topic and smoothing out excessive straightforwardness, introduces the concept of «paradigmatic variance and syntagmatic variation of terms», asks about the «boundaries of variability of the term» [2, P. 3-8]. As noted by M. V. Nikitin: «Synonymy is not only a vocabulary given of a language, but even more a communicative-pragmatic speech action,» where synonymous terms allow you to emphasize different properties and features, as well as highlight details phenomenon or object [3, P. 452].
There are several reasons for the appearance of the term's ambiguity (or its variability), and one of them lies in the way the term is formed. V.M. Leichik distinguishes 3 main ways of occurrence of terms:
1. They are created from the available resources of a certain natural using various derivational or syntactic methods.
2. They become terms as a result of terminology of non-terms.
3. Borrowed from other languages, where they already existed as terms, or with simultaneous terminology [4, P. 83-84].
Moreover, borrowing is the most productive way of word formation in the English language. I.V. Arnold notes that "the
number of native words in the English dictionary is only about 30%." English is considered as one of the most "absorbing" European languages in terms of borrowing. I.V. Arnold calls it "very permeable" [5, P. 221].
This was largely due to the geographical location of the British Isles and the possibility of direct contact, first with foreign-speaking invaders (Celts, Romans, Angles and Saxons, Vikings, Normans) from the Iron Age, and then, during the period of geographical discoveries and trade expansion as conquerors (Irish, Indians America, tribes of Africa and peoples of India, aborigines of Australia).
It is borrowing that is the focus of this work as a phenomenon that has not been sufficiently studied in lexicology and, in turn, in terminology. So, according to L.P. Krysin, "bilingualism is considered the necessary conditions for borrowing", i.e. the result of both the territorial contact of the two peoples and the cultural one. "Another condition for borrowing may be that a predisposition arises in society to adopt a new foreign language vocabulary." For example, when meeting a new concept, object, phenomenon that has a name in the original language. And this process is reciprocal [6].
Internationalisms occupy a separate place in borrowing. As noted by I.V. Arnold, "international words borrowed from one source have graphic and sound similarities and, coinciding to some extent in meaning, constitute, as it were, the common heritage of a number of languages." Most of them are the result of the enrichment of new languages at the expense of the vocabulary of the ancients, i.e. Latin and Greek [5, P. 231].
In addition to Latin and Greek, there is another ancient "dead" language (among others), which had a great influence on the culture of many peoples. This is Sanskrit. This study is devoted to the consideration of borrowed terms from the ancient language of India — Sanskrit to English. The analysis of borrowed terms in English from Sanskrit is a poorly studied area, despite the large number of works in this area.
For a deep immersion in the topic of the emergence of terms from Sanskrit in English, it is necessary to make a historical excursion to the territory of the functioning of Sanskrit and the emergence of the language itself.
For the first time, mention of India can be found among the Greeks, for example, in the «Iliad and Odyssey». We can find a more complex work in Strabo's Geography [7]. Strabo, relying mainly on the Alexandrian geographer Eratosthenes, and also according to the recollections of Alexander's companions during the campaign in India, describes a country that is distant for Europeans and therefore largely incomprehensible and fabulous for them. It appears to the reader as an amazing place with an abundance of flora and fauna, an original culture of the population, and many natural resources. Here we also find one of the first mentions of the name of the area - India, so with the courtesy of Alexander's comrades-in-arms they began to call the country all over the world, by the name of the large Indus River, which Alexander's troops met one of the first. However, the inhabitants themselves called their country Bharata.
From the Great Russian Encyclopedia we learn that the beginning of the penetration of Europeans to South Asia belongs to the end of the 15th century. First, the Portuguese with Vasco da Gamma, then in the 17th century. merchants from the Netherlands, England, Denmark, France also appeared in India. In the struggle, which unfolded in the middle of the 18th century between the European powers for India, Great Britain took over [8].
Thanks to archeology, modern science can date the ancient monuments of human activity in India to the lower paleolit (about 200-100 thousand years ago) [8]. Thus, people have settled in the territory of modern India since time immemorial. Where there are people, there is also the language they speak. Since ancient times, the so-called Indo-Aryan languages have been spoken on these territories. From the 1st millennium BC on its basis there was the beginning of the formation of Sanskrit, first in North India, then throughout India. Sanskrit early began to be used as a literary language, using a special prestige. Numerous religious, philosophical, legal, scientific works of ancient scientists are written in Sanskrit. In India, Sanskrit is used as the language of humanitarian sciences and religious cult. Sanskrit and Sanskrit-lingual culture had an influence on the neighboring areas and from the end of 18th century - to Europe and America. With the discovery and study of Sanskrit, it is connected with the beginning of the comparison with the comparatively-historical language knowledge [8].
In the Encyclopedia Britannica, there is evidence that classical Sanskrit is in fact a language close to the late Vedic, which was then used in the northwest of the subcontinent. The first Sanskrit grammar of Ashtadhyaya ("eight chapters") appeared around the 6-5th century BC and was gracefully described by Pandini. Sanskrit is similar in grammatical structure to other early Indo-European languages such as Greek and Latin. What served as a powerful incentive for the study of Sanskrit by European scholars and philologists [9].
Sanskritology appeared within the framework of the science of oriental studies. The branches that make up oriental studies received independent development in the 19th century. A great incentive in the study of Sanskrit was also given by Indo-Europeism as a direction of science, which had a direct relationship to the problem of the origin of the European nations. English, French and German scholars tried to realize the deep past of their nations through the ancient oriental texts. The study of Sanskrit outside India begins as early as the 17th century, when the works of Bhartrhari (grammar and vocabulary of Sanskrit) were first translated into Portuguese in 1651. Further, the famous work of Indian sages "Bhagavad Gita" was translated into English from Sanskrit by the European scientist Charles Wilkins. In 1786, Sir William Jones noted the similarities between Sanskrit, Ancient Greek and Latin, an event often cited as the beginning of comparative linguistics, Indo-European studies, and Sanskrit philology.
In Germany, oriental studies have made a significant contribution to Sanskritology and Indo-Europeism, which was related to the social interest in the historical sources of the "Aryan culture". The prominent German linguist Franz Bopp (1791-1867) is known for his extensive and pioneering comparative work on Indo-European languages. Together with August Wilhelm von Schlegel, they published a translation of the Bhagavad-Gita (1823), later of the Mahabharata into German, which proved to be an excellent help in raising interest in reading Sanskrit texts.
The nineteenth century was the heyday of Western Sanskrit science, largely due to the colonial conquests, in England the greatest development was obtained by India, and many giants of this area (Whitney, McDonnell, Monier-Williams, Grassman) knew each other personally.
Russian scientists were also interested in Sanskrit. For example, the educational and research activities of N.K. Roerich (1874-1947) and members of his family. «The Urusvati Institute for Himalayan Research» founded by him in Kullu (India) had medical, zoological, botanical, biochemical and many other laboratories. Much work was done in the field of linguistics and philology of the East.
M.N. Peterson (1885-1962) widely popularizes facts of Sanskrit in his courses on introduction to language knowledge and on comparative historical grammar of Indo-European languages [10].
Soviet Sanskrit scholars continue the pre-revolutionary studies of Sanskritology, that is, the study of Sanskrit through the prism of other Indo-European languages, comparative analysis, as well as analysis of grammar, phonetics, Sanskrit vocabulary. Here we can mention such scientists as I. P. Minaev, V. F. Miller, D. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, M. Ya. Kalinovich, P. G. Ritter, S. F. Oldenburg, F. I. Shcherbatskoy, R.O. Shor. Sanskrit was studied practically, as one of the Indological disciplines, in close connection with deep specialized studies in the field of literature, poetics and religion of ancient India. [11]. The largest Russian scholars of Sanskrit I. D. Serebryakov, V.G. Erman, B.L. Ogibenin, T. Ya. Elizarenkov published works on the study of the regional literary and historical process and analyzed in detail the most important monuments of Indian literature, considered the mythological content of Indian literature and consistently described the features of the language at all levels: in vocabulary, phonetics, morphology and syntax.
The largest Dutch specialist in ancient Indian and ancient Iranian mythology, was Franciscus Bernardus Jacobus Kuyper (1907 — 2003). Kuyper is known primarily as the author of the original concept of the Vedic religion. In his opinion, the main part of the Rigveda is made up of hymns sung during the rituals of celebrating the New Year [12].
Research methods and course.
To study the term "Sanskrit" let us carry out a comparative analysis of its meanings in the dictionaries of the original language and the English language.
According to the largest Sanskrit-English online dictionary, there are the following meanings of the term "Sanskrit" [13]: «WW>d» (samskrta)
1. well or completely formed
2. put together
3. highly elaborated
4. made ready
5. cooked
6. finished
7. polished
8. prepared
9. dressed
10. perfected
11. ornamented
12. completed
13. sanctified
14. hallowed
15. completely formed
16. well formed
17. adorned
18. initiated
19. refined
20. constructed
21. purified
22. consecrated
23. learned man
24. regular derivation
25. word formed according to accurate rules
26. man of one of the three classes who has been sanctified by the purificatory rites
27. preparation
28. sacred usage
29. making ready
30. sacred usage or custom
31. sacred custom
32. Sanskrit
33. sacrifice
34. preparation or a prepared place
35. Sanskrit language
36. prepared place
37. determination
38. perfection
39. effort
40. preparation
41. formation
42. hallowing
43. consecration
44. making ready
It should be noted, however, that the Sanskrit term «ww>d» (samskrta), in the original language, is pronounced «sam-skri-ta», not «san-skrit». Thus, when the term <<№|^» (samskrta) was borrowed into English, there were changes in the phonetics of the word ("m" passed into "n" and the last "a" disappeared, while writing "i" appeared, although it is not written in the original,
but this sound is pronounced and it turned out "sanskrit". By the type of borrowing, this term can be attributed to the phonetic, but with the replacement of one sound with another.
The term "даш" (samskrta) has 44 definitions in Sanskrit. Let's consider with what meaning or meanings this term was borrowed into the English language, for this we use the authoritative dictionaries of Great Britain. The Cambridge Dictionary gives us the following interpretation of this term: «Sanskrit» is an ancient language of India, in which many Hindu religious te xts are written. It is one of the Indo-European family of languages and many modern languages are based on it [14].
In the Oxford Dictionary we find that «sanskrit» is an ancient language of India belonging to the Indo-European family, in which the Hindu holy texts are written and on which many modern languages are based [15].
In Macmillan dictionary there is the following definition: «sanskrit» is an ancient language of India that is used mainly in literature and Hindu religious writings [16].
Let's check the meaning of this term in the American dictionary of English words — Mariam-Webster's dictionary. «Sanskrit» is
1. an ancient Indo-Aryan language that is the classical language of India and of Hinduism.
2. classical Sanskrit together with the older Vedic and various later modifications of classical Sanskrit [17].
Conclusion
The semantic charge (definition) of the term "sanskrit" when borrowed into English left only one "the name of the language in which the ancient texts of India were written". The American Dictionary adds a clarification about Classical Sanskrit. So, we can conclude that when borrowing the term "sanskrit" into English, of all the definitions, only one was chosen
— the language of Ancient India, thus, in this case, we can talk about the narrowing of meanings when borrowing. In the course of work on the term, it was found that phonetic borrowing occurred with the replacement of one sound with another ("m" for "n"). By the type of borrowed elements, this term is a materially borrowed term.
Конфликт интересов Conflict of Interest
Не указан. None declared.
Список литературы / References
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2. Авербух К.Я. Терминологическая вариантность и некоторые проблемы прикладной лингвистики / Авербух К.Я. // Проблемы перевода научно-технической литературы: Сб. науч. тр. - Саратов: Изд-во Саратовского университета, 1988.
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7. Страбон. ГЕОГРАФИЯ в 17 книгах. Репринтное воспроизведение текста издания 1964 г. М.: «Ладомир», 1994.
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9. Encyclopedia Britannica [Электронный ресурс]. - URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language (дата обращения: 21.07.2020).
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13. The Biggest Online Sanskrit Dictionary [Электронный ресурс]. - URL: http://sansdict.rf.gd/search/sanskrit (дата обращения: 10.07.2020)
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Список литературы на английском / References in English
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