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N. Almamedova,
Political analyst
THE SPECFICS OF POLITICAL CULTURE OF WOMEN IN CENTRAL ASIA (THE EXAMPLE OF TURKMENISTAN)
The urgency of the theme is determined by the need of developing political culture as one of the most significant conditions of social-political progress of society. The profound reformations for the last 10-15 years in various spheres of society stipulated the changes in public-political and state order in the countries of Central Asia. The formation of new institutions of the state power and the essential change of its characteristic as well as consolidation of self-dependent system of local self-government relating to the state makes it possible to speak actually about reanimation of policy in post-Soviet countries of Central Asia. This factor, like many other factors, creates the need to study the dynamics of the power, its correlation with politics and the reciprocal influence within the framework of the whole social system.
In the contemporary situation marked by the active role of politics in daily life of great significance is the process of taking into account the role and place of political culture in public life, its impact on civil position of the population. The study of historic development of society, of its present state lets reveal its specifics, which have been inherited and which are reflected in its political culture.
The activities of women are of great significance in the political transformation of contemporary society. The political culture of women plays an important role in stabilization of social-political life of the state, solving regional and ethnic-political problems as well as utilizing its peacemaking potential. The situation of women in society is a historic phenomenon, i.e. it is subject to development and change in due course. The consolidation and development of women's situation
depends on the chances given to them by society. At the same time, it is considered that just the changing situation of women reflects the level of genuine democracy in one or other country. The dynamics of development of contemporary democratic society, the growing number of problems under conditions of its transformation raise the demand that women should display initiative, look for new forms, means and technologies in order to have influence on social-political processes in the country.
The studies made by various international centers demonstrate as follows: the participation of women in the sphere of governance at all levels represents the factor of stabilization. In the countries characterized by the considerable (30-40%) participation of women in the power structures, the society is marked by more stable development and greater social orientation, primarily in the field of employment, education, health care and child's protection, protection of environment, nature and peace.
For many centuries of its history the Turkmen people deified women. At all times, the Turkmen women experienced maternity happiness and felt their high status in society. In 1885 historian N.Latkin described the position of Turkmen women as follows: "The Tekin woman is not a slave of his husband, like in other parts of Muslim Asia, but a citizen enjoying full rights, having civil and political rights equal to her husband. She does not hide her face by a shawl (chadra), she has a rather great influence not only in family but also in public affairs: her opinion is taken into account like opinions of others. In this relation, Turkmen have come greater forward comparing with other peoples of Asia and Europe".
Actually, no public significant historic event occurred without participation of women. The movement of women in Turkmenistan is connected with all stages of history passed by the whole Turkmen
people. For the 1920s, the first women clubs appeared and the women meetings were held; the movement of the first women activists was formed. For the Soviet time, the women organizations copied to a large extent the work of party and trade union organs: they listened to the reports, noted shortcomings and sometimes took to task.
The traditional image of eastern woman is associated primarily with the role of mother and faithful wife, keeper of family hearth, moral and cultural values and acquires more democratic contours in the channel of the world civilization's trends. Of great significance is the fact that Islam has no influence on realization of rights, qualities and chances of women of Turkmenistan and that there are no limitations of women's activities within the framework of religious traditions.
The sphere of women's activities formerly reduced to upbringing of children, house keeping, needlework and handicraft, was extended. Given development of education system and the sphere of social insurance, the women assumed the leading role over there, which, in its turn, enlarged the framework of their activities - from exclusively the family economic to the state-public sphere. The founding basis of this change is the Constitution of independent Turkmenistan, which provides for women the rights equal to the men's rights in all spheres: political, cultural and social. The timely complete and true statistical data on the situation of women and on gender differences play an important role in elimination of the existing stereotypes and in achievement the gender equality.
The Code of Turkmenistan on marriage and family guarantees all married women of equal and joint decision with the husband the questions of upbringing children and solving family problems. The married woman is free in the choice of occupation, profession and place of residence. The family situation has an influence on demographic indexes, such as mortality, migration, education and economic
activities. According to the census of the population, 62% of women older than 16 years are married, 12% - are widows, 22% are single and less than 4% are divorced. The share of married women is higher in rural districts than in city settlements, which has an impact on their reproductive activity. Of significance for the situation of a woman is her age of marriage, since it is closely connected with her reproductive activity. The average age of the first marriage in Turkmenistan is optimal - 22.4 years.
The literacy of women in Turkmenistan makes 99.9% of literacy level of men. The level of education of women, city residents is much higher that the level of education of women in rural areas. It is connected mainly with greater disposition of the women as rural residents to the family and house keeping. For the period of 1992-1998, despite potential chances, there exited the trend to reduction of the number and of the share of women in higher education and high education institutions. It could have an impact on the level of their education, since it is a common knowledge that the level of education is connected with the problems of health care and development of women. The reduction of the number of students in these education institutions is not connected with discrimination of women but is the result of abrogation of external students' education and the evening forms of education as non-efficient, as well as due to reduction of places for the full-time tuition.
Some changes have been made also in professional orientation of women. The share of women increased in 1995 among students of the higher education institutions in the following special spheres: industry and construction, transport and communication, agriculture, health care, physical culture and sport. At the same time, the share of women decreased among the students of higher education institutions in the sphere of economy and law, education, arts and cinema. In other words,
the professional training of women in the country acquired a natural and technical trend, which, according to international practice, should promote higher remuneration. Of significance was the fact, that since 1997 the share of the state expenses in GNP resumed its growth. At the same time, the objective became urgent to define the needs of economy in specialists and their training in higher education institutions of the country for the mid-term and long-term perspectives. It concerned women as well.
The training of specialists was arranged to ensure women a chance to represent the country on the international arena. The share of girls makes 40% in the department of law and international relations in Mukhmutkuli Turkmen State University. Approximately the same number of girls study international relations and international law and economics in the Turkmen Institute of People's Economy. The great part of training consists of learning foreign languages, computer literacy and utilization of new technologies.
In Turkmenistan women equally with men have access to owing land and to getting credits and loans. The women take active part in economic activities of society. Under conditions of transition to the market relations, one of the main motives in economic activities of women is their striving for realization of their professional capacity, for getting jobs corresponding to educational and professional qualification level and allowing the rise of the family budget and financial independence and in this way consolidating their social and political status.
In 1997, the share of women in the amount of economically active population accounted for 46%. At present, the share of women has got closer to the share of men -70%
(and without counting the number of women engaged in housekeeping). The changes in the structure of women's employment
take place under conditions of economic reforms. The share of women employees in the enterprises of different forms of property (the so called formal sector) accounted for 38% in 1989, 30% - in 1995, and was marked by oscillatory movements within the limit of 32-41%, while at present this index makes 44%.
If in the beginning of the transitional period the share of women in the state sector of economy was reduced for some extent, since 1997 up to present in the small and mid-size business the share of women has grown twice, while the share of men was reduced. In other words, the process of as though ousting men by women from the sphere of entrepreneurship is seen in Turkmenistan. The greater share in the total number of small enterprises (in small business) accounts for the spheres of economy, such as trade, industry and services. The greater number of women is engaged in small enterprises, primarily in the sphere of services (46%) and in industry (30%) The employment of women in mid-size business (in cooperatives) in industry made 48% and in services accounted for 41%.
The reduced production in the state sector has an impact primarily on women, since the state is the biggest employer of women occupied in the formal sector of economy. The conditions of work and the social guarantees are higher, while the gender differences in payment are smaller in the state sector than in the private sector. At the same time, in Turkmenistan there are no legal restrictions for women with high level of education and professional training to have the same access as the access of the men to the employment in new private enterprise. Nevertheless, the women's employment traditionally is concentrated in the so called "women" professions, which usually are less profitable and less prestigious. The share of women employed in the industries of material production is less than 50% of the total employees, while in some economy's branches (like transport and
construction) it is less than one fifth of the employed people. More than one half of office employees and service people consist of women, while this trend is characteristic for both state sector of economy and for the enterprises belonged to the small and mid-size business.
On the contrary, in the offices of the non-industrial branches, such as health care, education etc., the trends in women employment differs from other branches of economy. For instance, 60% of working women are employed in the state sector (health care, education and science, culture). At the same time, the share of women of the staff in the prestigious spheres, such as finances, crediting and insurance made from 38% to 40% for the period of 1997-1999 and accounts for 42% at present.
The state sector, where the level of remuneration for work is higher than its general level, even in traditional "women" branches, such as health care and education, the share of women among employees in 1999 was 40%, while today it is 45%. The attraction of women to more dynamic spheres and branches of economy is quite evident. The more so, the high level of education and professional training to a large extent condition striving of women for hired labor. According to statistics, the education level of women engaged in economic activities in Turkmenistan surpasses the level of education possessed by men. Only 18% of men occupied in economic branches have higher education comparing with 21% of women, who have it; over 2/3 of men have high and incomplete high education, while 46% of women have it.
Under conditions of existing family traditions, when the women assume all forms of care for children (the birth rate in Turkmenistan is one of the highest in the world) they turn out to be in less advantageous position than the men, who are able to devote their full attention and energy to their professional activities. Therefore "the triple burden" of
women at work (industrial, social and reproductive) may be the reason of their higher share in non-prestigious and less paid professions comparing with the share of men. The existing statistical data does not let determine the gender differences in incomes, including payments for work. This information may be received in materials of sample surveys relating to households. According to the Statistical Committee of Turkmenistan, the housekeeping headed by a woman has higher economic status than the housekeeping headed by a man.
In Turkmenistan the woman has the right to participate in state governance bodies. The women occupy the key posts not only in the education system and the health care system, in mass media and organs of culture but also in the law enforcement bodies and in the government. At present, two women occupy posts in the high echelons of power of Turkmenistan: the chairman of the parliament and the deputy head of the government. The representation of women in the parliament is the basic and systemic criteria, since it demonstrates the specifics of the party systems and the attitude of the parties to programs of gender development. Being half of the mankind, the women traditionally represent a social minority in politics and do not have impact on taking decisions on financial issues, problems of economic development and distribution of resources, on the state security.
In the world women occupy only 14% of the posts in governing structures, 6% of the posts of ministers and not more than 10% of them are members of the parliament. Although women display evident activity at the elections, their political representation is marked by a very slow progress. In 1995 only 10% of members of parliaments were women, and the same number was registered in 1970. The number of women, members of parliaments reduced rather greatly in the countries of the Eastern Europe, including Russia: from 25% in 1989 to 8% in 1995. Almost in 100 countries-members of the United Nations
Organization there are no women, elected to the parliaments. In the parliament of Turkmenistan the number of women makes 16%. According to United Nations, this number exceeds the corresponding data in the following countries: Azerbaijan (11.3%), Kazakhstan (10.4%), Georgia (9.4%), Ukraine (8.7%) and Armenia (5.3%). The dynamics of the number of women, deputies of Turkmen parliament, was as follows: the first convocation - 9 women, the second convocation - 13 women, at the elections for the parliament of the third convocation (19.12.2004) - 23 women in the course of the lections claimed to occupy 50 places in the parliament. In 1998 women made 8% of the members of the Peoples Assembly; in 2003 women accounted for 12.3% out of 65 elected deputies. At present the share of women makes 14% of the members of the Peoples Assembly.
The influence of women on activities of the trade unions of Turkmenistan is rather great. The post of the Deputy of the National Trade Union Center is occupied by a woman; the leaders of two (out of five) regional trade union organizations are women, and 45% of local trade union organizations are headed by women. In the Central Election Committee 53% of its members are women. In the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan 37.9% of its membership consists of women, while 30% of members of the Political Council of this party are women. The composition of Khalk Maslakhaty (the Peoples Council) is marked by the fact that 30% of its members are women. The trend to the growing number of women in participation in governance of the country is quite evident. For instance, in 1992 the share of women in the general number of officials in the organs of governing made 39%, while at present this number increased up to 42%. The quota for women in the parliament is fixed by 18%. More than 60 women occupy the key posts in the parliament and the government of the country, in its law
enforcement bodies, at the diplomatic service, in the system of education, health care, social insurance and in mass media.
At the same time, the share of women occupied in the organs of state governing in Turkmenistan is lower tan the average data. The general share, including the elected state heads and governing heads of central banks, makes 4% (the average index for the world makes 7%, while the index for the developed industrial countries accounts for 13%). However, it should be taken into account that usually in Asian countries the level of participation of women in taking state decisions outside house keeping is lower than in other countries. It is connected with both national specifics and with greater orientation of Asian women to the family and the children.
The main indexes relating to the situation of women and gender differences in development of Turkmenistan show that a certain progress was achieved in various fields. The rights and liabilities of women, like other categories of citizens of Turkmenistan, are fixed in the Constitution of the country, which provides women and men with equal rights in all spheres of economy, state affairs, in cultural and public-political life. The women of Turkmenistan have more rights and benefits than the men. It concerns protection of maternity, conditions of work, sphere of small business, pensions etc.
The most influential women's organization is the Union of Women of Turkmenistan, which numbers about one million members. The highest organ of the women's organization is its Congress composed of the delegates empowered by its territorial branches. The Central Committee and the Chairman of the Union are elected by the Congress and are in charge of its activities. The women's nongovernmental organizations represent the basis of the forming in the country civil society. The radical changes in life of society resulted in changes of the activities of women's organizations.
The women's social centers created at the initiative of the Union of Women of Turkmenistan contribute to development and realization of initiatives on the part of the women's movement. The first social centers were established in 1998, and at present 30 centers exist in the country. Most of them perform their activities as the women's information-resource centers. Their main mission consists in promotion of the principle of gender equality and in improvement of reproductive health of the population. They take actions in order to prevent the spread of unhealthy habits, conduct propaganda of gender equality at the level of family. They utilize in their work various forms and methods, such as rendering consultative, educational and practical assistance. For the nearest perspective, they are faced with preservation of the achieved gains and to take measures directed to further reduction of gender differences in development of men and women.
At present, the women of Turkmenistan support and actively participate in the process of national rebirth, in carrying out the policy of friendship and peace. All this demonstrates political and working activity of the Turkmen women, of evolution of their traditional image in the contemporary democratic world, their readiness for participation in solving problems of the state.
The growing interest to the problem of development of women's political culture is also determined by the fact that today the women come forward as a significant political force. They are able to have direct and indirect influence on all social-political processes, on the characteristic, content, direction and results of the social-economic and political development of the country. It is impossible today to solve the problems confronting the state without due account of their interests and their capacity. They quite often express the opinion in mass media that up to the XX century the world was the world of men, but that today (the present time of our life) "the era of women" has set in. The
issue is subject to discussion, but it is evident that in the contemporary world the woman occupies a significant place, if this society is oriented to high humanistic values.
"Sotsialnaya spetsifika razvitiya politicheskoy kultury v Tsentralnoy Azii", Moscow, 2011, pp .166-184.
A. Manoilo,
D.Sc. (Politics)
REVOLUTIONS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE NORTH AFRICA: POLITICAL PRAGMATISM AND «CONTROLLED CHAOS» TECHNOLOGY
The wave of recent revolutionary events in the North Africa successfully dismantled a set of political regimes, which seemed to be absolutely stable and unshakable, and this wave of events was marked by some peculiar features.
First, all of them were developing (in case of Libya continue to develop) according to the same scenario, or "revolutionary" pattern, which was similar to the scenario of "colored revolutions".
Second, "revolutions" in various states of the North Africa started almost simultaneously, and this factor actually always excludes any element of fortuitousness and supposes a high level of coordination (in time) from a foreign "revolutionary center" or the fact of the special operation thoroughly planned by external forces.
Third, "the fire" putting into political chaos the most stable and "European" country (Tunis) was caused by the insignificant ground: self-immolation of a local resident. Nevertheless, immediately it was a signal for the start of a mutiny in the whole country. At the same time, arrangement of a mutiny is practically impossible without previous
