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25
UDC 27-585
V. M. Hirvonen
THE MYSTIC JEAN GERSON ON THE DANGERS ON THE WAY TO THE HOLINESS: CAN TOO STRONG ASCETICISM LEAD TO MENTAL DISORDER?
Gerson is interested in inappropriate asceticism's (and even contemplation's) connection to mental disorders. He warns that excessive abstinence may generate lesions of the brain and in that way cause madness.
Key words: Jean Gerson, mental disorder, abstinence, contemplation.
Jean Gerson (1363-1429), a theologian, philosopher and Chancellor of the University of Paris, as well as being a mystic, was a boy of the Church: he wanted to reform the Church in many ways, and one way for that was to educate people, starting from children, in order to make them pious, devoted people serving God1.
Gerson recognized also dangers in the Christians' way to the holiness. In several of his writings, he paid attention to the mental disorders2. He thought that sometimes the person himself or herself may indirectly cause his or her own mental disorder. To put it more accurately, the behaviour which a person chooses may lead to mental disorder.
Gerson warns that it is obviously dangerous for a human being to surrender to imaginings or fantasies. Bad habits generated by acts of the imagination, can harm the imaginative power and consequently the whole human being, in such a way that the person becomes like a beast3. According to Gerson, every freely flowing
1 For Gerson's carrier and personal life, see Gerson J. Early Works / Transl. and intr. by B. McGuire. N. Y.; Mahwah, 1998. P. 4-21; McGuire B. P. Jean Gerson and the Last Medieval Reformation. University Park (PA), 2005; McGuire B. P. In Search of Jean Gerson: Chronology of His Life and Works //A Companion to Jean Gerson / Ed. by B. P. McGuire. Leiden; Boston, 2006. P. 1-39.
2 Hirvonen V. Late Medieval Philosophical and Theological Discussions of Mental Disorders: Witelo, Oresme, Gerson (manuscript).
3 "Rursus apparet quam periculosum sit homini dimittere se nimis
42
imagination has its insanity or drunkenness and such as a demonic passion, as Origen puts it. Such an imagination can totally pervert a person's judgment of reason. This is evident, Gerson states, in the case of impatient in whom "patience, when too often outraged, is converted into fury," like the proverb says4.
On the other hand, Gerson refers to the dangers of excessive abstinence. It may lead to lesions of the brain, perturbation of reason and even to mania, fury, melancholy or frenzy. Then the phantasms reserved in the brain are there so intensively that people think they see, hear and touch things that they have not factually sensed with their exterior senses. Gerson states that this effect sometimes strengthens, until it reaches such insanity that people believe themselves to be something other than they are: a cat, a cock, an ass, even a dead person5. Here Gerson again
labi et profundari in imaginationes vel phantasias, praesertim vitiosas et circa peritura semperque labentia, ut sunt beneficia, honores et divitiae; nam cum generentur habitus ex actibus frequentatis et habitus causent, naturaliter fit ut pondere suae inclinationis sic immutent imaginativam virtutem et ex consequenti totum hominem quod necessitate quadam trahitur homo velut brutum, quemadmodum fit in illis quos Philosophus bestiales appellat" (Gerson J. De passionibus animae, in L'oeuvre doctrinale, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 9. P. etc., 1973. P. 20-21).
4 "Sic utique verum est quod omnis imaginatio profundata habet suam insaniam vel ebrietatem et quasi daemoniacam passionem sicut dicit Orígenes; laedit quoque notabiliter seu pervertit totaliter judicium rationis; patet in philocaptis, patet in ambitiosis, in avaris, in invidis, in impatien-tibus in quibus verificatur illud proverbium: furor fit laesa saepius pa-tientia" (Ibid. P. 21). Gerson refers to this also in his "De probatione spir-ituum" (Gerson J. De passionibus animae. P. 180). In accordance with his line, Gerson attacked severely Jean de Meun's poem "The Romance of the Rose". The poem celebrated "insane love" which Gerson considered as a moral vice. For Gerson's and his contemporaries' discussion on this poem, see: Le débat sur le Roman de la rose. Christine de Pisan, Jean Gerson, Jean de Montreuil, Gontier et Pierre Col / Edition critique introduction, traductions, notes par Eric Hicks. Bibliothèque du XVe siècle 43. P., 1977.
5 "...Excessus in abstinentia; quia morbos affert incurabiles ex laesione cerebri et rationis perturbatione, quo fit ut per maniam aut furiam vel caeteras passiones melancólicas sic profundantur et intime radicantur phantasmata interius reservata in cerebro, quod esse reputantur verae res extrinsecus apparentes, et audire se putat homo, videre vel tangere quod nullo modo sensu exteriori percipitur. Invalescit autem haec passio usque ad hanc aliquando insaniam ut judicet se homo aliud esse quam
refers to the case of Nebuchadnezzar: Many authorities have thought that Nebuchadnezzar suffered from this kind of disease when he thought himself to be a brute animal6. Gerson continues that medical books are full of such monstrous apparitions and disturbances in the power of judgment resulting from lesion in the interior powers. People having them need medical care7. Gerson also refers to Oresme's writings of this subject8. Gerson tells he has even examined many who in most matters seem to be of sound mind, but whose damages in their powers of fantasy sometimes manifest themselves in their reactions9.
In his letter to a hermit called Antoine, Gerson says that a person's abstinence should not be so excessive that it destroys the body and impedes the use of reason by debilitating and evacuating the brain and triggering melancholic insanities. Gerson warns Antoine that it is less likely that sanity will be restored after the power of reason has been upset10. Even in cases where magicians
est; quemadmodum repertus est qui se murilegum, alius qui se gallum, alius qui se asinum, alius qui se mortuum reputaret" (Gerson J. De distinc-tione verarum revelationum a falsis, in L'oeuvre magistrale, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 3. P. etc., 1962. P. 44). Earlier in the same text, Gerson tells about a woman who practised extreme asceticism because of vanity and was in danger of becoming insane (ibid. P. 43; Gerson J. Traité des diverses tentations de l'ennemi, in L'oeuvre française, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 7. P. etc., 1966. P. 803).
6 "Unde fuerunt nonnulli doctorum qui hac aegritudine percussum arbitrati sunt fuisse ipsum Nabuchodonosor, ut brutum animal se esse crederet et non veraciter induerit corpus belluinum" (Gerson J. De distinc-tione verarum... P. 44).
7 Ibid.
8 Gerson J. In festo S. Michaelis Archangeli, in L'oeuvre oratoire, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 5. P. etc., 1963. P. 312. See also: Hansen B. Nicole Oresme and the Marvels of Nature. A Study of his De causis mirabilium with Critical Edition, Translation, and Commentary, Studies and Texts 68. Toronto, 1985. P. 116-117.
9 Gerson J. De distinctione verarum... P. 44.
10 "Item sit abstinentia tua sic moderata quod nec sit onerosa purae mentis elevationi per nimiam ingurgitationem et repletionem, nec sit destructiva corporis et impeditiva debiti usus rationis per excessivam absti-nentiam debilitantem et evacuantem cerebrum et quandoque melancólicas insanias operantem..." (Gerson J. Gerson au solitaire Antoine, reclus du Mont-Valérien, in L'oeuvre épistolaire, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 2. P. etc., 1960. P. 82). In order to
seem to cause mental disorders, according to Gerson, abstinence may be the explanation. Gerson thinks that in the case of magical art, many of its practices require excessive fasting and other acts which disturb the senses and reason, and people who dedicate themselves to such arts often become insane11.
Even the contemplative life, according to Gerson, may sometimes have a connection with mental disorders. Johan Huizinga, however, seems to exaggerate when he straightforwardly interprets Gerson as thinking that the contemplative life has great dangers, and has made many people mad12. Gerson indeed thinks that there are people who may end up with frenzy or melancholy if they try to live a contemplative life13. To the claim that many people have been disappointed with the contemplative life, and have become fools or melancholic, he, however, answers that many people have been disappointed with active life as well, and not all people have been given the grace to live a contemplative life. As to the possible mental disorders of contemplative people, worldly people easily think contemplatives to be fools and melancholies since their life is different14. As a matter of fact, contemplatives
remove depression (acedia) and destruction of the mind, but also self-contempt, Gerson advices Antoine to study the moral treatises of the saints. In the middle ages, the term acedia was mostly used in moral theology to refer to a sin typical to monks.
11 Gerson J. De distinctione verarum... P. 44.
12 Huizinga J. Herfsttij der middeleeuwen. Studie over levens- en ge-dachtenvormen der veertiende en vijftiende eeuw in Frankrijk en de Ne-derlanden. Vierde herziene druk. Haarlem, 1935. S. 278.
13 "...Enchéent aucunes fois en fronaisie ou hors de bonne creance, et en sont fais mellancoliex..." (Gerson J. Traité des diverses tentations de l'ennemi, in L'oeuvre française, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 7. P. etc., 1966. P. 34; idem. De monte contemplations / Ed. Louis Ellies Du Pin. Opera omnia (OO). 3. Antwerpen, 1706. Nachdr. Hildesheim, 1987. P. 25, 561).
14 "Quant a la tierce raison, pour ce que on voit aulcuns tels estre dep-ceuz et devenir folx et melancholieus, ie di qu'en vie active sont aussi plusieurs deceuz, car tous n'ont mie discretion qui est requise a bien finer son entreprise. Et n'ont mie tous le don de la grasce de vivre en contemplation pour aulcunes causes que i'ai assignées par avant; comme dist l'apostle cas-cun a son propre don de Dieu; et si en corps tous li membre estoient oeil, ou seroient les mains? Vrai est que li mondain jugent de legier les contemplatifs estre fols et melancholieus pour ce qu'il ne font comme il font et qu'il mesprisent le monde..." (Gerson J. La montaigne de contemplatios. P. 37).
indeed are not, according to Gerson, as wise and prudent in worldly matters as those who live an active life since their primary interest is not in such things15.
In Jean Gerson's texts, mental disorders appear almost always as naturally caused. However, also Gerson thinks that demons can do a lot of bad to the human beings, like cause various illusions and other troubles in fantasy. Sometimes the devil may indirectly cause mental disorders, for instance, by tempting people to practice excessive fasting which may lead to mental disorders such as melancholy16. Whatever may cause mental disorders,
"Quantum ad rationem tertiam, scilicet quod aliqui tales contemplativi sunt decepti, effectique fatui & melancholici. Respondetur quod in activa vita similiter plures sunt decepti, quia non utuntur discretione requisita ad bene terminandum incoeptum opus. Nec etiam omnibus est data gratia talis, vivendi scilicet in contemplativa vita, propter causas certas ante signatas, sicut dicit Apostolus: Quilibet habet donum proprium a Deo, unus quidem sic, al-tervero sic: 1. Cor. VII. 7. & iterum: Si in corpore uno omnia membra essent oculus, ubi ess ent manus, & c. 1. Cor. XII.17. Verum est quod mundani contemplativos leviter judicant fatuos esse, atque melancholicos: non enim faciunt quo-modo & ipsi, contemnuntque omnia quae isti mundani charissim tenent..." (Gerson }. De monte contemplationis. P. 29, 563-564).
15 "Je confesse bien aussi que gens donnés a contemplation ne sont mie si saiges et prudens aux mondains faiz comme li actifs, car point n'y mettent leur engin ou entention; de quoi avient que on les iuge nices et non saichans; mais peu leur en chaut, car a ce sont ils appellés, comme dit l'appoustre et ad ce s'efforchent, c'est assavoir estre foulz pour devenir saiges" (Gerson J. La montaigne de contemplation. P. 38). "Fateor quod contemplativi in factis mundanis non sunt ita sapientes & prudentes, que-madmodum activi. Ratio, quia suum ingenium & intentionem in talibus non ponunt, unde accidit eos judicari simplices & insipientes, quamquam eis modica de isto sit cura: ad hoc enim sunt vocati, ut Apostolus innuit, & ad hoc nituntur toto conamine, scilicet reputari fatui, ut sapientes effici possint. 1. Cor. 111.18" (Gerson J. De monte contemplations. P. 29, 564).
16 Gerson }. In festo S. Michaelis Archangeli. P. 344; idem. Traité des diverses tentations de l'ennemi. P. 344). Based on one text, Huizinga states that after all the emphasis placed on the natural reasons behind mental disturbances, Gerson ends up thinking that the damage of the brain is, in turn, caused by the illusions caused by the devil (Huizinga J. Op. cit. S. 357). Gerson indeed says like this: "Provenit rursus haec laesio ab intrinseco, justo Dei judicio permittente, per diabilicas illusiones, sicut per auctoritates et historias posset introduce" (Gerson J. Contra superstitiosam dierum observantiam. P. 119). I do not think that on the basis of this sentence, one can generally reduce the origin of the cerebral lesions behind
Gerson seems to think that such states are quite common. He states that the kinds of states which Horace calls furies or insanities, are infinite, according to physicians. Gerson remarks that from this, Horace deduces that all people are in some way stupid and adds that also in the Bible, in Ecclesiastes, it is said that the number of stupid people is infinite17. Brian Patrick McGuire thinks that Gerson himself "may have been on the verge of mental illness"18.
Primary Sources
Gerson ]. Gerson au solitaire Antoine, reclus du Mont-Valérien, in L'oeuvre épistolaire, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 2. P. etc., 1960. Gerson ]. De distinctione verarum revelationum a falsis, in L'oeuvre magistrale, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 3. P. etc., 1962. Gerson ]. In festo S. Michaelis Archangeli, in L'oeuvre oratoire, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 5. P. etc., 1963. Gerson ]. La montaigne de contemplation, in L'oeuvre française, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 7. P. etc., 1966. Gerson ]. Traité des diverses tentations de l'ennemi, in L'oeuvre française, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 7. P. etc., 1966. Gerson ]. Collectorium super Magnificat, in L'oeuvre spirituelle et pastorale, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 8. P. etc., 1971.
mental disorders, to the devil. Gerson perhaps thinks that diabolic illusions indeed can cause the lesion, but only sometimes, when God permits it. In the case of lunacy, Gerson seems to refer to demonic possession: "Mens au-tem, praesertim stulti, secundum Sapientis verbum, ut luna mutatur; lunatica quippe est; quam spiritus immundus mittit nunc in ignem cupiditatis male inflammantem nunc in aquam tumoris male suffocantem, nunc elidit in terram cogitationum noxiarum de terrenis, et volutatur et clamat, et stri-det, et spumat, et arescit et discerpitur per varia; vix tandem redit ad se per lucidum intervallum ut Deum noscat et se, et hoc ab infantia" (Gerson J. Collectorium super Magnificat, in L'oeuvre spirituelle et pastorale, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 8. P. etc., 1971. P. 299).
17 Gerson J. De passionibus animae. P. 20.
18 Gerson }. Early Works. P. 11.
Gerson J. De passionibus animae, in L'oeuvre doctrinale, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 9. P. etc., 1973.
Gerson ]. Contra superstitiosam dierum observantiam, in L'oeuvre polémique, introduction, texte et notes par Mgr Glorieux. Oeuvres complètes (OC). 10. P. etc., 1973.
Gerson ]. De monte contemplationis / Ed. Louis Ellies Du Pin. Opera omnia (OO). 3. Antwerpen, 1706. Nachdr. Hildesheim, 1987.
Literature
Gerson ]. Early Works / Transi, and intr. by В. McGuire. N. Y.; Mahwah, 1998.
Hansen В. Nicole Oresme and the Marvels of Nature. A Study of his De causis mirabilium with Critical Edition, Translation, and Commentary, Studies and Texts 68. Toronto, 1985.
Hirvonen V. Late Medieval Philosophical and Theological Discussions of Mental Disorders: Witelo, Oresme, Gerson (manuscript).
Huizinga J. Herfsttij der middeleeuwen. Studie over levens-en gedachtenvormen der veertiende en vijftiende eeuw in Frankrijk en de Nederlanden. Vierde herziene druk. Haarlem, 1935.
Le débat sur le Roman de la rose. Christine de Pisan, Jean Gerson, Jean de Montreuil, Gontier et Pierre Col / Édition critique introduction, traductions, notes par Eric Hicks. Bibliothèque du XVe siècle 43. P., 1977.
McGuire B. P. Jean Gerson and the Last Medieval Reformation. University Park (PA), 2005.
McGuire B. P. In Search of Jean Gerson: Chronology of His Life and Works //A Companion to Jean Gerson / Ed. by B. P. McGuire. Leiden; Boston, 2006. P. 1-39.
Vesa Hirvonen, Doctor of Theology (University of Eastern Finland;
Lahti, Finland); e-mail: vesa.hirvonen@uef.fi.
Мистик Жан Жерсон об опасностях на пути к святости: может ли крайний аскетизм привести к душевному расстройству?
Жан Жерсон интересовался связью между крайним аскетизмом (включая созерцание) и душевными расстройствами. Он приходит к выводу, что чрезмерное воздержание может оказать воздей-
ствие на сознание человека и таким образом привести к душевному расстройству.
Ключевые слова: Жан Жерсон, душевное расстройство, воздержание, созерцание.
Веса Микаелъ Хирвонен, доктор теологии (Университет Восточной Финляндии; Лахти, Финляндия); эл. почта: vesa.hirvonen@uef.fi.
