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УДК 821.511.141-31.09:811.511.141'42(045) Istok Beta, Lorincz Gabor, Lorincz Julianna
THE LANGUAGE AND STYLE OF MOR JOKAI IN THE LIGHT OF HIS PAST TENSE USAGE AND UNIQUE WORD FORMATIONS
Despite the fact that by the beginning of the career of the great Hungarian novelist Mor Jokai, i.e. by the end of the 1840s, the first part of the Romantic era was over, Romanticism can be seen to influence European and Hungarian writers throughout the 19th century. The organizing and directing principles of this style development trend as a structure are: semantic and structural complexity, multiplanarity and diversity in one block - in other words semantic and structural polyphony [Szabo 1998, 111]. Other literary trends, such as the folk motive and later devices characteristic to Realism, also appear in Jokai's novels, but it is not possible to draw a sharp line between the various trends, often even within one given work of the writer. The aim of the present study is to give a taste of some of the characteristic features of Jokai's language, in line with the main features of Romantic art: the method of word formation, melodiousness and picturesqueness of texts, originality of vocabulary.
Keywords: Romanticism, language renewal, verb tenses, word formation methods, Jokai Encyclopedia. DOI: 10.35634/2224-9443-2024-18-2-217-223
1. Jokai's language
Many of his contemporaries criticized Jokai's language, mainly stressing any mistakes or errors, but these critics failed to or did not want to examine Jokai's language and style as a continuation of the language and style reform work started and successfully completed by Petofi and Arany. They did so in spite of the fact that, in his novels, short stories and other types of texts, also including his newspaper articles, Jokai's primary focus was on the spoken standard variety, as was the case for Petofi and Arany too.
Jokai's language is multi-layered: his birthplace, Komarom was also multilingual, and Budapest, the place where he lived as an adult, was characterized by "mixed language": even educated people mixed many foreign, mainly German and Latin words into their Hungarian speech, what came natural and was well understood by the people then, but is rather confusing in our own times [Fried 2005, 15].
In addition to the plot of his novels, Jokai owes a large part of the success he archieved in his lifetime to the language and style of his works. The most important elements of the writer's individual style: his rich vocabulary, the rhythmicity of his sentence composition, the melodiousness and picturesqueness of his texts, the use of figures of speech such as anaphora, repetitions, antitheses and similes. Jokai's usage of language was naturally also influenced by the language environment of the time. The Jokai literature of his time and that of subsequent times also point to this, although relatively little has been written in the linguistic and stylistic literature about Jokai's language use and style [cf. Tolnai 1925; 1929; N. Dely Zsuzsa 1969; Fabian 1981].
2. Stylistic devices of Jokai's language
The characteristics of the Romantic poetic language can also be found in Jokai's novels. Jokai considered himself to be primarily a poet, as evidenced by his imagery, normally a characteristic of poetic language, in both his prose and theatrical works. The imagery in Jokai's novels is also characterized by the power of imagination, suggestiveness and intense picturesqueness - these can be closely connected to the writer's visual imagination and talent as a painter - and also by melodiousness: Picturesque and suggestive images also have a musical effect. Picturesque imagery is also associated with acoustic effects [Szabo 1998, 115]. Rhetorical devices, especially anaphors and isocola played an important role in giving Jokai novels their melodiousness.
The next periodic sentence exhibits visuality and acousticity at the same time. The description of the events that unfolded in Kiraly-erdo1 in the Battle of Isaszeg is a presentation of the landscape after the battle
1 A geopraghical name. Translation: King's Forest. Today: Padurea Craiului, Romania.
in the novel titled "A koszivu ember fiai" ('The Baron's Sons'2). The highlighted text owes its melodiousness and suggestive style to the combined effect of several elements of stylistic value: the use of multiple tones, personifications, antitheses, enumeration, anaphors, isocola (equal or corresponding clauses) that increase rhythmicity. The contrast between piros ver 'red blood' and zold moha 'green moss' not only has an evocative function, but also suggests relief to the reader:
„Egy erdo, amelynek minden faja tortenetet mondo emlek. Egy erdo, telve unnepelyes suttogassal; hol a lombnak szelleme van, hol a fuszal emlekezik, hol a geszt sarjadekiban hosok piros vere szivarog, hol a zold moha almokat lat, s a zugo lomb kibeszeli azokat." / 'A forest where each tree holds memories. A forest filled with solemn whispers, where the foliage has its own spirit, where the grass remembers, where heroes' red blood trickles, where the green moss's dreams are told by the humming foliage.' (A koszivu, 361).
3. Grammatical features of the Jokai's texts
The second half of the 19th century is a period of consolidation for the Hungarian literary and standard language [Fabian 1981, 35]. The construction of the Jokai texts corresponds to the linguistic and literary norm of the time. The writer was already using the codified language which included many of the words created in the language renewal that were already established in the standard [cf. A. Jaszo 2016]. No linguistic-stylistic analysis covering Jokai's entire oeuvre has yet been made. In an earlier study introducing the writer's dictionary and the Jokai Encyclopedia [Lorincz G. - Lorincz J. 2021], the authors of the present study have already addressed Jokai's method of word formation, distinctive features of his conjugation, some unique words he coined and his verbs derived from foreign root words. In the present study, their grammatical analyses are further elaborated on.
3.1. The use of verb tenses in the novels
Similarly to the English language, the Hungarian language also had several different past tenses. Two such tenses that characterize the writer's usage of language will now be highlighted.
1. The preterite (praeteritum, marked by -a, -e, -a, -e), which expressed a continuous or semelfactive action in the past,
2. The perfective (perfectum, marked by -t, -tt), which indicates a perfective aspect. There was a functional difference between the two past tenses even in the 16th century [cf. J. Soltesz 1957; Tolcsvai Nagy 2017; 2021]. From the Middle Hungarian Period (1526-1772), the tense system underwent simplification and the perfective increasingly took on the role of the preterite as well. The two past tenses have continued to coexist for a long time in literary works, but primarily only to add aesthetic value, to avoid monotony. It was common for writers to use the two past tenses side by side without any difference in function, even in the same passage or sentence. This process can be observed in literary language in particular, especially from the Hungarian Reform Era throughout the 19th century [cf. Kalman 1975, 117-124; Fabian 1981, 37].
The use of the two past tenses as synonyms without functional differences can be observed in several of Jokai's works e.g. "A koszivu ember fiai" ('The Baron's Sons') and "Karpathy Zoltan" ('Zoltan Karpathy'), often within the same sentence; the writer's use of the preterite was probably only meant to avoid monotony:
„A vallalat elen vasakaratu ferfiak alltak; a kimondott szonak meg kelle tartatni3" / 'Men with an iron
will were at the helm of the company, once uttered, words needed to be honored' (Karpathy Zoltan, 8)
„Az egesz napot lazban tolte, s bezarkozva szobajaba, ott jart ala s fel nyugtalanul4" 'He spent the
whole day in a fever, locked in his room, he kept walking around and around uneasily' (A koszivu,
182).
But Jokai also uses a past tense that was already considered archaic in his age, to evoke a biblical tone:
2 The novel titled "A koszivu ember fiai", a word-for-word translation of the title is 'The Sons of the Heartless Man'. The book has been translated into English, the title of the translation is 'The Baron's Sons'.
3 Kelle 'was needed' is an example of the preterite, while alltak 'they were at (the helm of the company)' is a perfective form.
4 Tolte 'spent (the day)' is an example of the preterite, while jart 'walked' is a perfective form.
„flatäridö lön kitüzve; az elmult, nem tartatott meg. Lett hahota es gunykiältäs5" / 'A deadline had been set; it passed and was not kept. Then there were screams of laughter and mockery.' (Karpathy Zoltan, 7)
Also observed, though less frequently, is the tön form of the past tense of the verb tesz '(here) to make, to render', or another member of the same paradigm, as shown in the following example where the verb form tönek is a grammatical synonym for the perfective of the plural third-person inflectional form tettek:
„Hiszen oly keveseket erdekelt ez akkor, es e kevesek mind ugy beillettek egy csaläd tagjainak, kiket közös szeretet, közös bänat, közös äldozatok rokonokkä tönek, .. " / 'Since there were then only so few interested in this, and these few fit into a common family rendered kinsfolk by common love, common sorrow and common sacrifice.' (Karpathy Zoltan, 6).
3.2. The Jokai Encyclopedia (JokaiE.)
Experts consider the vocabulary of Mor Jokai to be the richest among Hungarian writers. By its nature, the JokaiE. (Jokai Encyclopedia, 2020), edited by Jozsef Attila Balazsi and Gabor Kiss combines the distinctive characteristics of a writer's dictionary and a lexicon. It not only interprets words and phrases, but also provides useful information about the persons, objects, names, geographical concepts, historical sites and landmarks that appear in the writer's novels. The Jokai Encyclopedia contains 28,850 headwords and 2,270 cross-references taken from the writer's 77 works. At the end of an entry, the editors also provide information on the occurrence of the headwords [Balazsi - Kiss 2020, 19]. In addition to Hungarian words and phrases, the encyclopedia also contains words from more than 20 foreign languages such as Latin, German, French, Greek, English, Russian, Turkish, Slovak or Romanian. The list of languages and the number of occurrences of the words are also given. In the process of compiling the encyclopedia, its authors processed the works published by the publishing houses Akademiai Kiado and Unikornis Kiado, but did so without the aim to process every work: novels, novelettes and selected novellas.
Despite the fact that the language, vocabulary and cultural data of Jokai's works has still not been completely processed, the Jokai Encyclopedia is a useful guide to reading the writer's novels and interpreting his vocabulary because part of Jokai's vocabulary - not only foreign words but Hungarian words also - is now strange to native Hungarian speakers as well. Data from the encyclopedia have been used in this study as well.
3.3. Words in Jokai's works that were created using derivational suffixes reformed at the time of the language renewal
"Cultural-literary aspects are important attributes of a nation's existence. Throughout the world, they create values that reflect the maturity of the human community in space and time" [Senkar 2020, 659]. In Jokai's lifetime, but especially at the beginning of his career, the language renewal was still an ongoing process and many new words were making their way into the standard language as well [cf. A. Jaszo 2016, 168]. Jokai also uses a good number of words from the language renewal era, but mainly ones that have already become established in the Hungarian language. On the other hand, he himself also coins new words (individual word formation processes are guided by the mental lexicon [cf. Kovacs 2009; 2010]), although his contemporaries and linguist Vilmos Tolnai also note that he did not always succeed, as the coinages were strange in contemporary language use [cf. Tolnai 1925, 93]. There were many new language-reform words without which not only colloquial language but literature is also unthinkable. It is natural that Jokai is not free of these influences either. A lot of words like hulläm 'wave', delibäb 'mirage', andalgo 'stroll', estharang 'evening bell', erzemeny 'feeling', alkony 'dusk', fuvatag 'tempest', különc 'eccentric', can be found in his works [N. Dely 1969, 18]. Of these, the words alkony 'dusk', delibäb 'mirage', hulläm 'wave', különc 'eccentric' still live in the language today. In the next part of this paper, the authors present a few words from a few Jokai works that were created using derivational suffixes reformed at the time of the language renewal.
The word nyargonc is used by Jokai to mean 'cavalryman, courier conveying orders of the commander' [JokaiE.: 589]. Kalman Szily is of the opinion in NyUSz. (Dictionary of Hungarian language renewal) that the word originated during the 1848 revolution [NyUSz.: 239]. Jokai uses the word in several places in his novels "A kiskiralyok" ('The Viceroys'), "A köszivü ember fiai" ('The Baron's Sons') and "Szeretve mind a verpadig" ('Loved up until the Scaffold').
5 In this example, lön, a grammatical form of the past tense inflectional verb form lett 'was, had been' with the same semantic meaning, an archaic form, also appears in the same sentence, in a passive voice construction.
„Futarok, nyargoncok, szallitmanyosok, szabadcsapat vezerel,..." / 'Couriers, freighters, a paramilitary group is in control.' (A koszivu, 318).
The word csatany is featured in several Jokai works in the sense of 'battle, fight, struggle' [JokaiE.: 193]. „Is not in any of our dictionaries; if Jokai had not used it, it would be long forgotten [NyUSz., 35]. In the next sentence, the word csatany also has a derogatory shade of meaning.
,,Ha mindez valoban historice nem igy tortent volna, azt mondanak ra: »csatany«!" / 'If all this were
not historically accurate, we would call [this]: a struggle.' (A koszivu, 570).
3.4. Compound words
The word asztaliras 'table-turning' [JokaiE.: 86] is Jokai's unique coinage; it is not included in NyUSz.
„Meg az asztalirashoz is folyamodtunk... " / 'They even resorted to table-turning. ' (A koszivu, 527)
Ordogszeker is the popular name for Eryngium campestre. The word has already appeared in Janos Arany's work "Rozsa es Ibolya" ('Rosa and Violet'). In the Jokai Encyclopedia, ordogszeker appears with the following meaning: 'a thorny, hard plant stem which, when divided from its base, is carried and spun around by the wind' [JokaiE.: 611]. Ordogborda is synonymous with ordogszeker, they have the same meaning in the example sentences, both words mean a dry plant, but according to popular superstition it was also used for exorcism, hence the suggested metaphoric names6. Jokai uses the words in his novel "Hetkoznapok" ('Weekdays'), among others:
„Haho! haho! ordogszekert hajtott elotte a szel." / 'Look! The wind was driving a Eryngium campestre (devil's wagon) in front of him.' (Hetkoznapok, 135).
„Neverol nevez mindegyik viragot, s szellemeket tulajdonit nekik; a zsarnok ordogborda, ... s koztuk reszvetet vagy utalatat megosztja." / 'He calles all flowers by their proper name and ascribes spirits to them; Eryngium campestre (devil's rib) the tyrant, ... spreads its compassion or loathing among them.' (Hetkoznapok, 92.).
„Odon utanabamult az ordogszekernek... Apro-csepro emberek,... kik most elorehajtjak az avaron, mint szel az ordogbordat, ..." / 'Odon"s eyes were following the Eryngium campestre (devil's wagon). Small people,. who are now pushing it on the dead fallen leaves like wind pushes on Eryngium campestre (devil's ribs).' (A koszivu, 521).
Vendegszeretetlen 'hostile to guests' is Jokai's humorous hapax legomenon. None the less, it is not included in the Jokai Encyclopedia despite the fact that Jokai even uses the variant vendegszerettelen formed using the suffix variant -telen in his drama "A szigetvari vertanuk" ('The Martyrs of Szigetvar'):
„Pedig az nagyon vendegszeretetlen puszta volt." / 'Now that was a wasteland hostile to guests.' (A koszivu, 519).
„ Vendegszerettelen vagyok ma nokhoz!" / 'I am hostile to woman today!' (A szigetvari, 8). 4. Foreign words
In Jokai's day, people used several language registers (literary, spoken standard, official, technical etc.) and many foreign words and phrases, e.g. Latin was mainly used by lawyers, but the educated usually also spoke German, French, Polish and other languages [cf. A. Jaszo 2015a: 14].
Jokai also uses many foreign words to describe his characters and their speech styles, but also to name different objects and locations. In addition to the imaginativeness of Jokai's novels, the amount of words taken from different languages may also have inspired translators; translations have been published in nearly 30 languages, for example in English, German, Russian, French and Italian. As much has been written in the literature about Jokai's use of foreign words, only his use of Russian words will now be illustrated using examples from the novel "A koszivu ember fiai" ('The Baron's Sons'). But Jokai also uses many Russian words in his book "Veres konyv" ('A Bloody Book').
6 Ordog means 'devil'. A word-for-word translation of the ordogszeker and ordogborda 'Eryngium campestre' is devil's wagon and devil's rib.
The friendship of Odon and Levin and the homecoming from Russia is a beautiful part of the novel "A koszivU ember fiai" ('The Baron's Sons'). When describing the snowy Russian landscape, a difficult journey on a troika (sled drawn by 3 horses), Jokai uses Russian words to evoke this environment.
Jokai probably coined the word vasok, which refers to sled with iron runners, by mishearing the word возок 'covered sled, covered sleigh' [JokaiE.: 843]. But metonymic association could also have been in play here, to the iron material of the sled's runners7.
Jemscsik variant of the word imsik can also be found in Jokai's writings, in the sense 'coachman, coach driver' of the pronounced form of the Russian word ямщик [JokaiE.: 383, 405].
„A »vasok«, az orosz szan, keszen allt mar, (...) az imsik kurta nyelu, hosszu ostoraval a lovak elott
allt." 'The vozok, the Russian sled was ready, (...) the coarchman stood before the horses with his
short-handled long whip.' (A koszivU, 51).
The word burana/buran is analogous to the Russian буран with meaning 'windstorm, squall' [JokaiE.: 146]. This word is used in multiple Jokai novels to evoke a given environment:
„A burana meg szokta mondani, hogy o kicsoda" / 'The windstorm usually reveals its own identity.'
(A koszivU, 53).
5. Summary
Thanks to following the tradition of orality and storytelling in many of his novels, Jokai's style rightly also attracted the attention of people who could read and write, but lacked a comprehensive education. He promised imagery in an age when it was in short supply, along with the illusion of listening to a tale, an opportunity to just forget everything else and listen. [Szajbely 2010, 128].
The aim of the present study was to give a taste of some of the characteristic features of Jokai's language, in line with the main features of Romantic art: the method of word formation, melodiousness and pic-turesqueness of texts, originality of vocabulary. Among the grammatical elements of Jokai's language, the paper highlighted the use of the two past tenses - the preterite and the perfective - in the same context, some words Jokai created using derivational suffixes from the language renewal, a number of unique compound words; foreign word use was illustrated by examples of the use of a number of Russian words.
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Kovacs L. A mentalis lexikon vizsgalata halozatelmeleti megkozelitesben [Studying the mental lexicon from a network theory perspective]. In Balasko M. - Balazs G. - Kovacs L. (Eds.), Halozatkutatas - Halozatok a
7 Vas means 'iron'.
tarsadalomban es a nyelvben [Network Research - Networks in Society and Language]. Budapest: Tinta, 2010, Pp. 109-121. In Hungarian.
Lorincz G., Lorincz J. Jokai Mor szokincserol es szoalkotasi modjairol az iroi szotarak tukreben [About the vocabulary and word formation methods of Mor Jokai in the light of the writers' dictionaries]. Hungarologiai Kozlemenyek, 2021. Vol. 22, № 2. Pp. 41-55. In Hungarian.
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SOURCES
Jokai M. Hetkoznapok [Weekdays]. Budapest: Unikornis Kiado, 1992. Jokai M. Karpathy Zoltan [Zoltan Karpathy]. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1963. Jokai M. A koszivu ember fiai [The Baron's Sons]. Budapest: Szepirodalmi Kiado, 1960. Jokai M. A szigetvari vertanuk [The Martyrs of Szigetvar]. In Szinmuvek Jokai Mortol [Plays by Mor Jokai]. Pest: Kiadja Heckenast Gusztav, 1860.
*During the writing of the study, Istok B. and Lorincz G. received the Young Teaching Fellowship (Fiatal oktatoi osztondij, 2023/2024) supported by the Tempus Public Foundation.
Received 06.05.2024 Istok Bela,
PhD in Linguistics, Senior lecturer, Department of Hungarian Language and Literature J. Selye University Bratislavska cesta 3322, Komarno, 94501, Slovakia
E-mail: istokv@ujs.sk
Lorincz Gabor,
PhD in Linguistics, Senior lecturer, Department of Hungarian Language and Literature J. Selye University Bratislavska cesta 3322, 94501 Komarno, Slovakia
E-mail: lorinczg@ujs.sk
Lorincz Julianna,
Habil., PhD in Linguistics, Associate professor, Department of Hungarian Language and Literature J. Selye University Bratislavska cesta 3322, 94501 Komarno, Slovakia E-mail: jel2ster@gmail.com
Бела Ишток, Габор Леринц, Юлианна Леринц
ЯЗЫК И СТИЛЬ МОРА ЙОКАИ В СВЕТЕ УПОТРЕБЛЕНИЯ ФОРМ ПРОШЕДШЕГО ВРЕМЕНИ ГЛАГОЛОВ И УНИКАЛЬНЫХ СЛОВООБРАЗОВАНИЙ
DOI: 10.35634/2224-9443-2024-18-2-217-223
Несмотря на то, что к началу творческого пути великого венгерского романиста Мора Йокаи, то есть к концу 1840-х гг., первая часть романтической эпохи уже закончилась, романтизм оказывает влияние на европейских и венгерских писателей на протяжении всего XIX в. Организующими и направляющими принципами этого стилевого направления как структуры являются: семантическая и структурная сложность, многоплановость и разнообразие в одном блоке - иными словами, семантическая и структурная полифония [Szabo 1998, 111]. Другие литературные тенденции, такие как народные мотивы и более поздние приемы, характерные для реализма, также проявляются в романах Йокаи, но невозможно провести четкую границу между различными стилевыми тенденциями, часто даже и в рамках одного произведения писателя. Цель настоящего исследования - дать представление о некоторых характерных особенностях языка Йокаи в соответствии с основными чертами романтического искусства: способ словообразования, музыкальность и живописность текстов, оригинальность лексики.
Ключевые слова: романтизм, языковое новаторство, формы прошедшего времени, способы словообразования, энциклопедия Йокаи.
Citation: Yearbook of Finno-Ugric Studies, 2024, vol. 18, issue 2, pp. 217-223. In English.
Поступила в редакцию 06.05.2024 Ишток Бела,
доктор философии (PhD), языкознание, старший преподаватель, кафедра венгерского языка и литературы Университет им. Яноша Шейе 94501, Словакия, г. Комарно, Братиславска цеста, 3322
E-mail: istokv@ujs.sk
Леринц Габор,
доктор философии (PhD), языкознание, старший преподаватель, кафедра венгерского языка и литературы, Университет им. Яноша Шейе 94501, Словакия, Комарно, Братиславска цеста 3322
E-mail: lorinczg@ujs.sk
Леринц Юлианна,
хабилитированный доктор лингвистики, доцент, Кафедра венгерского языка и литературы, Университет им. Яноша Шейе 94501, Словакия, Комарно, Братиславска цеста 3322
E-mail: jel2ster@gmail.com
