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Erika M. Grodzki
The Lacuna Model and Its Application Potential for Advertising Research
Introduction
J.A. Sorokin discovered the lacuna model and used it within the framework of Russian ethno-psycholin-guistics. I. Markovina and other Russian intercultural communication studies scholars later utilized lacuna theory in the 1970s and 1980s (1). Cultural differences and
understandings are an integral part of the lacuna model. The model helps to explain how different cultures have very specific ways of communicating. Misunderstandings often arise because of "lacunae" or "gaps". Lacunae are often understood as cultural specific information that is "missing" and/or is simply not understood by non-members of the given culture. A gap in cultural knowledge is present and thus, misunderstandings or misinterpretations often arise because the context is not certain or is replaced with another context. For example, in America, friends usually do not have long conversations when passing by, for instance in a shopping mall. The people might say 'hello' yet they may not get into a lengthy conversation. In Germany, however, if two friends meet one another, they immediately start a conversation that may last awhile. Many Germans would interpret a simple 'hi' or 'hello' amongst friends as rude in nature.
When a simple action or event is interpreted as "rude, weird, mysterious, or unknown," by a non-cultural member, it is likely that a "lacuna" emerged. It is difficult to fully understand the 'lacuna' concept
without a thorough review of the lacuna model. The author will first outline the lacuna model and then demonstrate how the model can be utilized for advertising research.
Astrid Ertelt-Vieth [2000] (2) explains in her book, Die Entwicklung kulturspezifischer Bilder vom Gegenueber und vom Selbst durch interkulturelle Kommunikation:
Russische Austauschschueler fahren nach Deutschland what lacunas are and how they function (3).
1. Lacunas are elements (reality, processes, conditions) of texts. The person encountering the text from another culture cannot quite understand or grasp. The text containing the lacuna is very complicated for the foreigner. He or she has a missing hole of information and thus, he or she must be motivated to try to unlock the missing elements. Lacuna can be labeled "intercultural" in definition.
2. The understanding of the texts (the other positions and meanings) is an active and perspective-bound process of meaning construction under the basis of 'making sense' out of the text for the reader of the text.
3. Lacunas have no stable meaning. Their meaning is subjective in nature and based upon the perspective of the receiver. The meaning can be defined differently depending on a competing individual perspective, sub-culture, or other national culture.
4. One can share the contents of lacunas in the subjective psychological positioning of the lacunas, in communicative strategies, and in the
cultural realm. They are complexly intertwined and mixed and matched with other variables.
5. Their structure can be differentiated, between speaking levels, on an intercultural basis, explicitly, implicitly, as well as on complete and relative conditions, or further pertaining to relational or structural content.
6. Cultural specific meanings of lacunas and other textual elements are axiological in form. A person encountering a lacuna must leave his or her cultural basis behind in order to venture forward to begin to understand the new situation even if that situation seems 'strange' or 'awkward'. He or she must learn a different symbol system, value system, aesthetic system, etc ... in order to begin to unlock the lacunas. This can prove difficult for tourists, business people, researchers, and the masses, all alike. Lacunas are like three-dimensional mirrors in that two levels of lacunas are always present.
7. In principal the results of intercultural experimentation has resulted in the following specific labeling of lacunas (4):
Lacunas are cultural in form and all carry an axiological dimension.
The axiological dimension, which was developed by Astrid Ertelt-Vieth [1990], carries the meanings or values held by members of the culture. Everything within a culture holds meaning or value. Thus, the second dimension of all lacunas is the axiological dimension. The lacuna model can be used as a method of systemizing cultural differences. The model categorizes cultural differences as they emerge for non-members of culture or sub-culture. Cultural lacunas are the superior category for all other lacunas. The other lacunas are divided into three major categories, which are: subjective lacunas, lacunas of communicative activity, and lacunas related to cultural space.
The following breakdown in the classification of lacunas can be found in Using Lacuna Theory to Detect Perceived Differences in German and American Automotive Advertising [Grodzki 2003]. Here, the classifications of lacunas will be briefly outlined. The lacunas are much more complex than the briefly outline which will follow. Please consult the aforementioned texts for a greater lacuna classification description. (See Fig.1)
Axiologie Lacunas"
Axiologie Lacunas
Subjective lacunas or "national-psychological" lacunas
Lacunas are comprised of the common viewpoints and opinions of cultural members, the ways in which these members subjectively view themselves and others, are called subjective or "national-psychological" lacunas. These lacunas are further classified into: character lacunas, syllogistic lacunas, cultural-emotive lacunas, and lacunas of humor. According to Ertelt-Vieth [1990: 177. Translation JS], character lacunas refer to "the stereotypical reception of the national character of other countries." Character lacunas are also seen in how cultural members identify themselves. Syllogistic lacunas, referring to the common ways of thinking in a society, are further explained by Markovina and Sorokin who cite the example of German "theory" orientation vs. Anglo-American "fact" orientation. Temperament enters the scene in the next type of lacunas, cultural-emotive lacunas which directly characterize the cultural temperament. Differences in understanding what is funny are seen in lacunas of humor. Perceptive lacunas are how individuals in a society perceive time or space. One may think that a 45-minute drive is short while another might think that it is awfully long. Inter-reflective lacunas are present when one nation perceives the behavior of another as being "strange " or "odd". Finally, the last category added to subjective lacunas, was preference lacunas, which refer to noting preferences for certain colors, scents, tastes, sights, tunes, and feelings of objects [Grodzki
2003].
Lacunas of communicative activity
Lacunas that specifically refer to the different ways in which cultures differ in the types of activities they perform are called lacunas of communicative activity. The strategies that are used to solve problems are culture-specific and are called mental lacunas [Schroeder 1995]. These can include the ways that individuals from a given culture classify objects and facts. Differences in non-verbal behavior or specific behavioral response are called behavioral-specific lacunas. Two new lacunas which have been recently added as a sub-category to mental lacunas are lacunas of concentration and lacunas of image processes. Kinesic lacunas take into effect the way that people in a culture gesture to one another. Other lacunas of communicative activity are: routine lacunas (daily activities), etiquette lacunas (mannerly or polite behavior), and fond lacunas (differences in the continuing knowledge of the culture). Paralinguistic/body language lacunas which address vocal features that contribute to communication or body language also are lacunas of communicative activity. Lacunas relating to identity such as lacunas of middle identity profit (has one portrays himself/herself) and lacunas of identity description (how one
describes/evaluates another to which he/she is speaking) are as well included. The last two types of lacunas of communicative activity are language system lacunas (lexicon, phonetic, grammar, style), and language usage lacunas those of rhetorical strategy, contact recording, or theme lacunas, as
well as lacunas of oral texts and moving pictures.
Lacunas related to cultural
space
The way in which typical folk habits are perceived by members of the given culture are lacunas related to cultural space. These lacunas may also refer to the inventory of knowledge that is assumed to be typical for these members, the cultural identity these members share. Ideas about 'strangers' and 'others' who do not belong to their group are also lacunas related to cultural space [Antipov et al. 1989: 130] (5). The following sub-groups fall under lacunas related to cultural space: geographic lacunas (landforms or other dominant structures, mountains, oceans, lakes, forests), ethnographic lacunas (special drinks, certain food dishes, clothing, apartment furnishings), and lacunas of cultural stock (knowledge of representatives of one's culture and their knowledge of other cultures). Lacunas of cultural stock refer to how individuals comprehend historical events (mnestic lacunas) as well as how cultural symbolism is understood (artistic symbols, social symbols). Lastly, lacunas of evaluative stereotypes are here included and refer to how behaviors, concepts, rolls, status, national auto stereotypes, and national hetero-stereotypes are evaluated and perceived.
Researchers continue to develop the lacuna model by identifying new lacunas as they arise in various contexts. Lacuna theory has an incredible application potential for intercultural researchers.
The Application Potential for Advertising Research
An understanding of lacuna theory can be greatly beneficial in the arena of advertising research. Several particular lacunas were identified during a study of American and German automotive commercials [Grodzki 2003: 152]. German students viewed several American automotive commercials while American students viewed several German car commercials. A lacuna study was constructed by way of a questionnaire. Students were asked a series of questions about the commercials. They were asked to note what appeared to be "strange" or "odd" in several contexts. The researcher attempted to discover the lacunas as they emerged. These were some of the differences that were perceived.
German Students Viewing American Commercials - Perceived Differences
62% noted that the U.S. commercials have more emotional appeals; tell stories
42% noted that the cars are driven at a faster speed in the commercial 31% noted that there was no major difference in the characters and their mannerisms
29% noted that the U.S. commercials
were more entertaining
28% noted that the U.S. commercials
do not connect the cars to the
environment
19% noted that the U.S. commercials
show the prices of the cars
8% noted that the U.S. commercials
use animated figures
6% noted that the U.S. commercials
use American clichés such as trucks or
cowboys
American Students Viewing German Commercials - Perceived Differences
62% noted that the German ads use emotional appeal
48% noted that the German ads have a faster pace
20% noted that the commercials are run in two parts
18% noted that there was no information about the car 11% noted that the car itself was shown less frequently than in the U.S. commercials
The American students thought that the German commercials would be effective in America if properly translated and dubbed. In fact, 68% said that they would definitely work. As far as the German students were concerned, 47% thought that the American commercials would be effective in Germany if properly translated and dubbed. It is interesting that both sets of students thought that the opposite country had more emotional appeals in their commercials. The author believes that the German students understood there to be more emotional appeals in relation to the family stories that were told by way of the images or text of commercial. There are many American car commercials that portray the family as warm with close-up shots. American students saw the German commercials as more emotional because they were lacking rational information about the car. Many other responses emerged and are noteworthy, yet these are the categories that were most prevalent. This type of experiment is valuable because there are no pre-set categories.
Several new lacunas emerged in the study:
1. Preference lacunas - which would refer to lacunas of aesthetic differences or preferences in taste, music, art forms, objects, etc ... and would fall directly under the general category of subjective lacunas. They would be then situated near the humor lacunas. Preference lacunas can be further labeled to include: color, hearing, taste, touch, shape, smell. These preference lacunas are very much related to a person's senses. They are subjective on a personal level, but also subjective on a common cultural level. An example of a preference lacuna in this particular study would be the color of the vehicle being advertised. Often the vehicle in the American car commercials was red, whereas in the German commercials, the car color was more often black, silver, or blue.
2. Lacunas of concentration - refer to the attention span of the individual and his/her ability or willingness to concentrate. These lacunas would fall under the overall category of subjective lacunas under a sub-group of "communicative" lacunas. They would be situated near the syllogistic lacunas and perceptive lacunas. It was observed by the researcher that the German students were less likely to pay attention or concentrate while viewing American commercials that displayed typical American themes (i.e., cowboys)
3. Lacunas of image processing -
refer to how fast an individual can process images without becoming dizzy or confused. These lacunas would as well fall under "communicative" lacunas. These are definitely different on an individual
level, but can also differ on a common cultural level. A large percentage of the American students noted that they felt dizzy after watching the German commercials.
All of these lacunas emerged in the duration of the study. Others also emerged that related to specifically to advertising texts, for example, commercials in Germany often have two parts, one part being around 3035 seconds long and the second part being 20 seconds long and appearing after a commercial for another product. Thus, what results is a lacuna of oral texts and moving pictures; however, other lacunas could be further categorized under 'text' lacunas, which would be positioned near subjective lacunas, lacunas of communicative activity, and lacunas related to cultural space. This would build another major category of lacunas under which would fall the lacunas of oral texts and moving pictures, lacunas of virtual texts, and lacunas of written texts. Specifically, other lacunas could be further categorized as:
Lacunas of Advertising Texts - a
sub-category of "lacunas of oral texts and moving pictures" and also a subcategory of "lacunas of virtual texts", as well as a sub-category of "lacunas of written texts". These lacunas address advertising texts. They would refer to differences in all types of advertising. They are lacunas that emerge while watching television commercials or reading/viewing print advertisements in newspapers, magazines or interacting with virtual advertisements on the Internet. These lacunas hold the following lacunas:
lacunas of advertising productions, lacunas of advertising messages, and lacunas of advertising appeals.
a. Lacunas of Advertising Productions - would fall under the category of lacunas of advertising texts. The sub-category is somewhat different because it relates solely to advertising. Other lacunas which would fall under this category would be: lacunas of time/length of the commercial/print/virtual advertisement, lacunas of commercial/print/virtual structure (Is it all together or in two different parts?), lacunas of flashing images (Are the shots cut closely together with little time between them or with a few seconds between them?), lacunas of types of shots used (Are mainly close-ups used or medium shots or pillow shots?), lacunas of special effects and animation, and voice-over lacunas. German students commented that they were very disturbed by the voice-overs in the American commercials.
b. Lacunas of Advertising Messages - would also first fall under the lacunas of advertising texts. These lacunas would refer to how the message is brought forth in the commercial. Is the product itself shown in the advertisement? Many American students were surprised that the product itself was not shown very often in the German car commercials. What is the advertising slogan? Is the slogan sung or spoken? Is the slogan easy to understand or complex? Lacunas which would be placed here are: lacunas of hard sell/soft sell messages, lacunas of product placement, and lacunas of slogan construction.
c. Lacunas of Advertising Appeals -
would also fall under lacunas of
advertising texts. They would refer to how the product is sold in reference to certain appeals. Lacunas which would fit under this category are: lacunas of rational/emotional appeals, lacunas of sex appeals, lacunas of status appeals, lacunas of safety and security, lacunas of adventure and fun, lacunas of leisure activities, lacunas of humor, lacunas of target group appeals (these are commercials which are obviously structured for a certain group within a society - for example, business entrepreneurs, professional
women/men, teenagers, cat lovers, sports enthusiasts).
There are even more categories that could be added to the lacunas of advertising texts category. Further research, will provide the opportunity to develop the model. Hartmut Schröder [1994, 1995] spoke of the benefits of using the lacuna model for multi-media texts. This research begins to indulge upon the endeavor. The placement of the aforementioned lacunas must be further discussed and expanded upon.
As one can see from the study, the lacuna model is beneficial for advertising research. It is particularly useful for investigating the creative strategy. Advertisers must realize that a concentration on creative strategy in developing "brand image" and "brand equity" is of prime importance. Cultural researchers should become extremely familiar with the product and the product's life cycle and typical advertising campaigns for other products in the same product category in the given countries from the start. Lacuna studies can provide perception pre-tests and preference tests of the individual commercials or
advertisements to help with branding. The studies would address many factors including: emotional appeals, status appeals, color, textual matters, clothing, cultural logic, organization of the commercial, slogans, nature of the product, country-of-origin image, nonverbal gestures, characters, objects in the commercial, landscape, sex appeals, family appeals, etc ... The Standardization vs. Adaptation Debate
Most companies have seen the value of adapting their campaigns to fit the needs of local markets. In fact the slogan, "think global, act local" was revised by the Coca-Cola Company to read "think local, act local" (6). There are other companies, however, that still believe that it is possible to create successful global campaigns. Even though there is a greater awareness of the benefits of adaptation, there is still a need to better familiarize oneself with the given culture in order to improve marketing and advertising techniques.
Agencies may truly be aware of the given culture but may not incorporate cultural knowledge and behavior into the commercial itself. Details are extremely important. Certain questions should be addressed:
❖ Are the commercials/advertisements truly appropriate for the given culture?
❖ Do they get the point across?
❖ Do they accomplish the advertising/marketing objectives?
❖ Are they culturally appealing?
❖ Do they create any misconceptions about the brand?
Lacuna studies can create assurance for advertisers because every minute detail of the creative strategy is examined with members of the given culture who are the intended target.
Lacuna theory could help make way that companies would immediately for advertisers to understand how to consult a cultural researcher before bring culture to the brand by creating a campaign for another implementing it properly in the culture; however, this is still not always creative strategy. One would think the case.
References:
1. Schroeder, H. (1995). "Lacunae" and the covert problems of understanding texts from foreign cultures. Vaasan Yliopiston Julkaisuja, Studies in Intercultural Communication, 196 (31), 10-25.
2. Astrid Ertelt-Vieth (2000) explains lacuna analysis in other previous works as well. Her latest research, however, delves into the essence of lacuna theory. The understanding of axiological lacunas is further built upon as well as the understanding of relational, structural, implicit, explicit, denotative and connotative levels of lacunas.
3. This text is translated and somewhat simplified from the original German version written by Ertelt-Vieth (Translation, EG, p. 129).
4. The model has been translated from the original German version constructed by Ertelt-Vieth (Translation, EG).
5. Antipov, B.A./Donskich, O.A./Markovina, I.J./Sorokin, J.A. (1989): Tekst kak yavlenie kultury. Nowosibirsk. 1989.
Daft, D. (2001). Think Local, Act Local: Coca-Cola Goes Post Global. Market Leader, 12.
