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Ewa Feresztyn
THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL CONSCIOUSNESS ON INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION PROBLEM RESOLUTION
1. Introduction
Each of us in our daily life is trying to communicate effectively and clearly with others by interacting with people from different cultures. This process takes place everywhere; in the fields of business, health, community welfare, counselling and
communication studies. While laying emphasis on the rapid development of technology, which facilitates both communication and travel, it cannot be forgotten that the modern world is becoming more and more intercultural everyday. Constant migration and, consequently, changing demographics form multicultural societies where members of different race, religion and ethnic group who chose to maintain their cultural uniqueness live alongside each other. Due to globalisation and international politics, the former mosaic of isolated cultures has turned into an interdependent and interrelated global network of today. International relations are no longer restricted only to politics and commerce. Both diplomacy and the flow of goods are followed by the exchange of customs and ideas. Hence, successful intercultural communication is a vital issue both on a micro level of individuals and groups as well as on a macro scale of political relations between nations and countries. An increasing number of cultural communication difficulty and
dilemma disturbing factors on both levels all over the world make efficient conflict resolution one of the top priorities.
Therefore, in my assignment I will focus on problems of different sources appearing in intercultural communication process, circumstances and effects. How could it be prevented, avoided or minimized?
In spite of the fact that principal causes of intercultural communication problems might have a lot to do with cultural differences, the communication difficulty on the individual area between two interacting persons itself, tends to acquire a cultural character. Whatever the reasons of disagreement, misunderstanding or cultural differences, constitute an additional layer of discrepancy between the participants. Should cultural dissimilarities be taken into consideration by solving intercultural misunderstanding or would it be more effective to build on the similarities instead? Is a cultural lens in communication problems resolution an aid or a hindrance?
Although cultural awareness is helpful in resolving intercultural disputes, the key issue is to be sensitive to its drawbacks and limitations. Without appropriate attention and awareness of the pitfalls of viewing a communication problem form a cultural perspective, resolution is less likely to be effective. In short, it is the cultural approach combined with an awareness of its weaknesses that makes
intercultural controversy more successful and satisfactory for both sides. Such hypothesis will be tested in the light of theories, findings and knowledge contained in academic studies in the field of social sciences for example based on Russian Ethnopsycholinguistic model of lacuna.
The study will focus on, examine or simply shortly refer to chosen concepts of the types of "gaps" in understanding and their examples that are relevant for my own empiric experience. Taking into account the complexity of the issue, the aim of this paper is not to discuss specific cases but to provide an answer to the problem on the basis of general overview.
Following this matter, I would like to pay detailed attention, to the main roots of many intercultural disagreements and cultural discrepancies between values and psychological needs. During the socialization process within their culture people, learn which qualities to appreciate and which principles and ideas to follow in their life. An intercultural encounter may, thus, lead to a clash of contrasting values, which could in turn slow down the resolution of an already existing conflict.
"What kinds of negative and positive aspects concerning the intercultural consciousness are the most visible in daily life?" - This question will be the next issue of my work. For this purpose I have prepared a questionnaire form.
With adequate cultural knowledge, dispute parties could be able to identify the sources of disagreement as the clash of values
that, consequently, would considerably facilitate the resolution process. In order to classify the conflict as a discrepancy of cultural values, both parties first need to be aware of their own beliefs and attitudes, which they bring into the interaction. Additionally, apart from being the reason of conflict or simply a hindrance of its resolution, distinct values are also important in the context of the ways of problem resolution, which they partly determine.
In the following chapter I will try to answer the following question: "How to avoid and moderate the negative impact on the intercultural communication?" Taking up the points of my assignment in more details I would like to stress that the theoretical background: definitions and methods of avoiding misunderstandings are keywords in any analyses of this topic. However, to better understand the concept relevant to this approach, I will try to find and classify in my empiric experience and personal contact with foreigners some types of "lacunas" -the main subject of Russian intercultural researches and ethnopsycholinguistic studies. Some remarks based on an observation from a "real life" touched in my paper will be served as variety of a background for understanding interdependences, in respect of this cause.
In spite of its mentioned above advantages of conflict soften, a cultural lens in dilemma solving could also exert a negative impact on the process. The study of the unhelpful influence of a culture-specific perspective will be based on analysing both appropriate
theories as well as the potential drawbacks like a phenomenon of universalism of a cultural approach with their underlying explanations. The main theory supporting the argument against cultural awareness in conflict resolution is the concept of universalism. In contrast to cultural relativism, universalism focuses on the similarities between cultures and argues that basic human values, universal human nature and, consequently, mutual understanding transcendent cultural differences. These similarities should become the foundation for universal norms and rules or, as in the case of conflict preventing, the basis for reaching an agreement. Relativism - the main theoretical concept that forms the core of the argument in favour of cultural awareness is cultural relativism. It is based on the idea that beliefs, principles and behaviour can only be understood within their appropriate cultural context. No culture is superior to the other and instead of being judged cultures can only be compared.
In the final chapter I will try to sum up all the aspects of my topic and bring all these considerations into one overall shape. Although the concepts of intra and intercultural orientation are connected with each other and influence our daily life, I am not able to present all existing aspects of the intra- intercultural relations because the subject is too vast. Thus, I will concentrate on the main points mentioned above, taking also my own experience with foreigners as an example. Before I begin to approach these questions, I would like to clarify the important concepts of my work;
what factors determine these definitions?
2. Culture and intercultural Communication
Communication is very specific for a given culture's language rules to construct the "speech chain", that in this network process involves the transmission and exchange of our opinions, specific images of consciousness that are mental equivalents of concepts, ideas and artefacts existing in the culture. In fact, a ubiquitous and quite normal aspect of social behaviour is the tendency to divide people into groups - "us" and "them", and to find ways of distinguishing our own groups and making them look better than the out-groups. Therefore an important part of the process of communication that it should be stressed is confronting our own prejudice towards the other culture, and our stereotypes about it.
2.1. Definition of Culture
The analysis of intercultural communication and misunderstanding dilemma resolution requires clarifying the broad concept of culture. In view of the wide discrepancy in the academic world concerning the meaning of culture, the purpose of this paper is to choose the most appropriate definition to deal with the problem of communication between people from different cultures, minimising the negative impact of miscommunication and, consequently, to refer to throughout the analysis. From the common point of view culture is a set of norms believes and traditions shared by a social group which are passed on from generation to generation and
which influence perception and behaviour. In other words, culture is "the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another" (1).
This definition distinguishes culture from human nature, common to all human beings, and personality, which is a unique characteristic of an individual. Although the exact position of the boarders between the three dimensions is all but clear, the general classification will be helpful in analysing the role of cultural awareness in intercultural communication and misunderstanding resolution as well. The universal dimension, human nature, encompasses inherited characteristics shared by all human beings such as, for example, the ability to experience basic emotions or the need to associate with other human beings. Culture, on the other hand, is a learned characteristic of groups of people from the same social environment. Apart from these two dimensions, each person also has a unique individual personality - a set of traits influenced both by culture and personal experiences (2).
What was said during our classes, culture is a very dynamic phenomenon that can be compared with the "iceberg". This metaphoric definition has two parts. The first one is external and is visible and internal is hidden below the water plane. Without this part we cannot understand why people behave in the special way, what they think, which values, attitudes, beliefs, patterns they have. These cultural preferences are mostly viewed absolutely normal in given culture but they are not clear and normal for non-
members of this culture. And this issue reflect the mentioned in other part of my work lacunas method for investigation of verbal consciousness. Back to the main point to definition of culture it has to be added that this term builds an identity for itself by identifying outsiders, creating subjective views and opinions of others. So knowing this hidden part of "ice berg" we can comprehend common attitudes, activities, beliefs, thoughts, patterns of behaviour of various ethnic groups.
1.2. Definition of intercultural Communication
In spite of the fact that the language, as the speech system might seem to be the least ambiguous communication mode, this is hardly the case. Especially in the case of resolution of intercultural difficulties in communication, language differences might lead to possible misunderstandings. The source of potential problems stems from the fact that apart from being used as a communication tool, language also influences our perception. It serves as a mean to objectify our images of the world. Our minds, consciousness are externalised by acts, words, grammatical structures and language syntax that do not only illustrate the needs, ways of thinking and behaviour of a culture but also influences them (3). Additionally, as the meaning of words is culturally determined, even the meaning of expressions, which seem to be an exact translation, might not be identical. Especially abstract words, which apart from their denotative meaning also have a connotative one based on personal experiences, are responsible for communication difficulties. While from
a social point of view language classify to some ethnic groups- people sharing a common cultural heritage, from the psychological side, it plays a role of "mediator" between cultures that gives labels on everything in the world. In other words, serves as a mean of ethnic integration and disintegration and reflected verbal picture of the world in their consciousness.
Although being aware of these difficulties is unlikely to eliminate them completely, it will be helpful in clearing up or preventing misunderstandings. If one party, for example, sees a potential threat in a certain word or expression, it might be useful to clarify its meaning beforehand. This strategy might prove useful both in the case when conflict parties speak different languages and, consequently, conflict resolution has to take place with the help of an interpreter as well as in the case when the parties use the same language, which is not the native language of either one or both of them. In the former case the interpreter might also partly be acting as a mediator by clarifying statements and adding additional cultural information. In the latter case it would be advisable for the party with a considerably better command of the language to make allowances for that fact by using uncomplicated and clear language void of slang and idiomatic expressions as well as by giving the opponent more time to respond. Mastering a foreign language is a very challenging and laborious task, which requires both hard work and ability. Fluency and grammatical correctness does not necessarily mean that the speaker also has the so-called feel for language, that is to say an intuitive sense of what is
linguistically appropriate (4). For instance, one party could unintentionally offend the other by a wrong choice of words, which native speakers usually use in a different context. Thus, being aware of such potential communicational misunderstandings is the best way to reduce the threat of their occurrence.
2.3. The impact of Culture on Communication
Various theories in psychology endeavouring to explain human behaviour have emphasised the importance of the environment in shaping it. Although the theories belong to diverse psychological trends ranging from behaviourism to social psychology and differ in the emphasis they attach to certain factors influencing behaviour, they all acknowledge, to a lesser or greater extent, the significance of external factors. Kurt Lewin, the author of the most balanced theory of interactionism, which combined the arguments of both personality and social psychologists, argued that behaviour is a function of the person and the situation (5). The fact that external factors influence the way people act is both logical and scientifically confirmed. For instance, although collectivists emphasize harmony and interdependence as far as members of their group are concerned, during an encounter with non-members they may start acting in a competitive way (6). While concentrating on cultural differences, people tend to explain the behaviour of their opponents with cultural instead of situational influences. In other words, they overestimate the importance of culture as a causal factor in behaviour at the same time failing to notice external environmental forces. Sometimes, the
way to successful intercultural communication is very smooth. Not only are we increasingly likely to interact face-to-face with people from other cultures, but also it is almost inevitable that we will communicate with them by telephone, by fax or on the Internet. However, intercultural communication is an area where many people feel more comfortable dealing face-to face from one reason but it depends on the importance of situation, personality, aims, space and time among various cultures. It can be seen on the area of non- congruence of consciousness images and reveals differences in verbal consciousness of dialogue partners.
Another stumbling bloc to successful intercultural communication is the difference between communication styles, arts of thinking, analysing and expressing. In Western cultures people, and especially males, tend to use the linear style based on a logical sequence of interconnected ideas or events, which ends in a clearly stated end point. Conversely, Arab, Asian and Latin cultures generally prefer the circular style concentrating on the context and interpretation, which should guide the listeners to the main point (7). In misunderstanding problem solution an unaware Westerner could come to the conclusion that the opposite party using a circular style is trying to avoid dealing with the problem, stalling or even sabotaging the process. The latter, on the other hand, might be irritated by the simple and brisk communication patterns of the other. Still, with adequate cultural information participants would know what to expect and, consequently, would be able to take the style
difference into consideration during the resolution process. From the research in class resulted that for example Japanese-much can be understood from the context, not using many words while for Americans totally different form is much more understood and adequate.
It has to be mentioned that differing genders can be also a reason for problems in communication not only on the individual but also on the intercultural area. However this could be another vast subject to discuss.
3. Relativism & Universalism - the attitudes of cultural consciousness
Relativism & universalism are two attitudes that I should mention and explain shortly, because by avoiding intercultural disagreements they are a very broad and complex issue. Although there are no strict rules that guarantee successful conflict resolution, one could propose a few general guidelines to facilitate the process. One of such guidelines is the promotion of cultural awareness. The analysis of the conceptual framework of the problem showed that both contrasting concepts of cultural relativism and universalism have their limitations. In short, whereas relativists fail to notice the underlying similarities between human beings, Universalists ignore cultural differences. Thus, none of the concepts is fully acceptable. An ideal theory would take into account both universal human nature and cultural diversity. The basic similarities between people need not rule out the overlaying differences. Consequently, relativists should accept the existence and make allowances for the similarities based on human nature, while universalists should take into
account the apparent cultural differences. Similarly, the approach of minimizing and preventing conflict or should also consider both similarities and differences (8).
4. Dimensions of cultural differences
There are many dimensions of cultural differences causing problems in intercultural communication. There are misunderstandings based on language, differences in non-verbal behavior style, different way of thinking, conventions and practices in cultural values and rules. In some situations the wrong interpretation of these cultural determents causes anger, frustration, developing intolerance and ultimately a conflict.
An obvious problematic area when two people from different cultures want to communicate is the language. Indeed majority of the people in the world is bilingual or multilingual, but in many parts of the world they do not have the language competency and cannot speak the other's language, or are only able to understand a few words: "foreigner talk" is often degraded like baby talk. Language - basic misunderstandings can arise also in different dialect groups: Catalan and Spanish. In this case the intercultural communication is a form of inter-group communication that has a lot in common with communication across other group memberships, for example among different nations: English-spoken Americans and British, or distinguish sub-cultures and social class (9).
The kinds of misunderstanding described above seem to be the most
obvious examples of intercultural communication breakdown.
Sometimes, the similar problems come not from the lack of knowledge or ability to speak the other language but from the unwillingness to do so. For example: English, French or Spanish people don't need to use foreign idioms, even if they speak it very well. In my opinion it is the attitude of "ignorance" or a "snobbish" behavior when they don't want to do it, because they think that everyone should speak English or that foreigners should know their native language.
Such unwillingness to accommodate can extend beyond important signal of the relations between two cultural groups. This concept of misunderstandings described above is accompanied by a continuous flow of non-verbal communication, which involves not only the voice, tone, speed, quality of speech but also the face, facial expression, mimics, and the body: the distance we stand from others, our spatial orientation to them, posture, gesture, touch and the like. Even though some types of non-verbal behavior appear to be innate, cultures differ greatly in their use of this behavior and in their beliefs about what is appropriate. For example, a Japanese man may believe that Americans are excitable and emotional, more talkative. As was it mentioned above they are from two total different cultures Western and Eastern, have different way of thinking: while Japanese focuses more on analogy, Americans art of thinking is much verbal. For Japanese more can be understood from the context, not using many words. In comparison to the
members of West, oriental people are more modest, not spontaneously, reserved in behavior as Americans or Spanish people.
A cultural variability perspective emphasizes the next dimension of misunderstanding based on the individualism-collectivism posture. A value-based dimension, such as individualism-collectivism, can provide us with a more in-depth understanding of why members of two contrastive cultures for example Arab - American approach conflict differently. One example can be seen in the situation when the manager of some company has to resolve the employers striating dispute. He is in the confrontation with two different types of conflict according to the culture orientation. While an American is dominant culture, one side loses and other wins, by Arabian is more harmonic and the conflict resolution rules look different. In muslin customs both sides have to have right or are guilty in the same dimension. Communication among people in the workplace involves multiple identities- organizational role and status, identity as a unit member, role based on experience, gender, as well as cultural identity.
Basically, individualism refers to the broad value tendencies of people in a culture to emphasize the individual identity over group identity, and individual rights over group obligations. In contrast, collectivism refers to the broad value tendencies of people in a culture to emphasize the group identity over the individual identity, and in-group-oriented concerns over individual
wants and desires. Nevertheless, we can also find both individualistic and collectivistic elements in all of these countries, in different combinations. Additionally, considerable within-culture differences have also been uncovered in many of the pluralistic societies. For example, within a pluralistic society (such as Canada or the United States), different ethnic communities can also display distinctive individualistic and group-oriented value tendencies. For example, ethnic groups that follow their ethnic traditions such as African Americans, Asian Americans, Latino Americans, and Native Americans tend to subscribe to some forms of collectivistic values more than do many European Americans. Cultural and ethnic miscommunication and conflicts often arise because of our ignorance of different value priorities in different ethnic communities and cultures. In addition to individualism-collectivism, in order to mindfully manage intercultural conflicts, we should pay close attention to the value dimension (10).
It is also worth to mention the genders in the context of sex and family roles. Cultural differences on the femininity - masculinity area, Western ideas about sex and gender are in a state of fairly rapid change. It can be difficult for Western woman, accepted the ideas of equality between sexes to live in the orthodoxy Arabian culture. However, men and women think and analyze in different ways by human nature therefore I tried to stress only those misunderstandings in intercultural marriages caused by tradition and customs diversity.
4.1. Miscommunication
Misunderstanding can be caused by a large number of factors; so that it is no surprise that miscommunication is so common. When intercultural communication is involved, often culture is blamed for everything and the important role played by the other factors: different languages, nationalities, values, mentality, beliefs, customs, tradition are mainly sources of insult of feelings, conflicts between two people is forgotten.
Intercultural miscommunication and misattributions often underscore intercultural conflict. Individuals coming from two contrastive cultural communities bring with them different value assumptions, expectations, verbal and nonverbal habits, and interaction scripts that influence the conflict process. While everyday intercultural conflicts are often based on cultural ignorance or misunderstanding, it is obvious that not all intercultural conflicts are based on miscommunication or lack of understanding. Some intercultural conflicts are based on deep-seated hatred, and centuries-old antagonism often arising from long-standing historical, verbal, non- verbal behaviour grievances. However, a majority of everyday conflicts that we encounter can be traced to cultural miscommunication or ignorance. A major problem exists, however, when individualists and collectivists hold different notions of what constitute effective and appropriate practices in conflict resolution. For individualists a conflict is effectively resolved when personal opinions are voiced and
acknowledged, interests are defined and clarified, each side's goals are either reached or compromised, and action plans are drawn up for avoiding trouble in the future. In addition, individualists perceive themselves to have acted appropriately when they display sensitivity to the background and causes of the conflict. Conversely, for collectivists a conflict is effectively resolved when both parties help to attain mutual face-saving while reaching a consensus on substantive issue between them.
It is clear that large-scale social forces have an influence on stereotypes, prejudice and bias between people from different cultures and groups and that the languages spoken in a multicultural community are a reflection of inter- group relations. In fact, many studies have shown that the language and accent of a speaker alone are enough to produce very different judgments of the speaker's characteristics (11).
This chapter concerns on examining the reasons for misunderstanding and hostility between people in different cultures that cannot be easily explained in terms of different rules or even different values. To analyze such miscommunications we must look to the economic, social and historical relations between cultures. Most of the time we can minimize the impact of prejudice by understanding how it works, and by slowing down enough to get beyond our own stereotypes and to communicate with the people we meet as individuals.
Culture and behaviour are very broad and highly intricate abstract concepts. Due to their nature
conducting research as accurate as in other fields of science is not possible. Nor is it possible to study the behaviour of all the members of a certain culture. Social scientists have no choice but to relay on the representativeness of the studied sample in order to make a generalization. Similarly, when dealing with culture in conflict resolution, being culturally sensitive requires drawing on cultural generalizations. Such sweeping statements mean that although the majority of group members display a certain characteristic, there is also a subgroup of people who deviate from the general trend. For instance, there are collectivists in individualistic cultures and individualists in collectivistic ones.
Still, when applying generalizations it is easy to forget about their limitations because, as previously stated, people organize and interpret new information in ways that fit their existing viewpoints. With a certain generalization in mind people will, often unconsciously, look for clues which confirm it and, thus, they will pay more attention to and are more likely to notice the confirmation of their beliefs rather than their contradiction. A deviation from the general rule would be discarded as an unimportant exception, whereas even a slight clue, which might be interpreted as a confirmation of the generalization, will be noticed at once. This phenomenon could also be explained by the fact that familiar ideas are more easily recognized than unfamiliar ones.
4.2. Generalization and Stereotypes
One of the strategies used to deal with cultural differences proposed in the previous chapter was to take into account the cultural practices of the opponent and to modify one's own behaviour accordingly in order to avoid misunderstandings and to make the resolution process more effective and more satisfactory for both parties. Still, considering the extensive importance of cultural background, it is doubtful if a conflict party or even a trained and experienced mediator could rise above it. Moreover, as culture is a highly complex concept comprised of a vast number of elements, it is impossible to understand it in detail. Since people often fail to comprehend the complexity of their own culture, it is unrealistic to expect them to understand a foreign one. All the mentioned above arguments point in the direction of a serious disadvantage of cultural awareness in conflict resolution that is the threat of stereotypes and generalizations.
A popular joke describes heaven as a place where the innkeepers are Swiss, the cooks are French, the policemen are English, the lovers are Italian, and the mechanics are German. Hell is where the lovers are Swiss, the innkeepers are French, the cooks are English, the mechanics are Italian, and policemen are German (12). The joke is a good illustration of the problem of cultural stereotypes. Stereotypes are oversimplified fixed assumptions about individuals based on their group membership. Such beliefs are either created through personal experience with one or several members of a certain group or simply learned from others, the public opinion or the media.
The activation of a stereotype in an intercultural encounter is often automatic, and as people tend to interpret new information in a way, which fits their existent views, stereotypes, are very persistent. A generalization, on the other hand, is a supposition about the characteristics of an entire group based on the qualities of a smaller group of its members. In contrast to stereotypes, generalizations are flexible and subject to modification in view of contrary information. While the former usually describes an individual, the latter refers to the majority of individuals in a certain group. When the person applying a generalization forgets about its limitations and starts viewing it as a universal characteristic of all group members without any verification, the generalization turns into a stereotype.
Both, generalisations and stereotypes are a way of classifying and simplifying the outside world in order to be able to understand it and to use the acquired knowledge to facilitate the interaction with others. This, however, is not always the case. Regardless of the fact if stereotypes are positive or negative, they are often misleading because they do not apply to all members of a certain group. In conflict resolution even a well-meant endeavour of being culturally sensitive might involuntary turn into drawing on stereotypes. If the opposite party does not fit the typecast, which is highly probable considering the nature of stereotypes, the resolution process might end in a misunderstanding or an offence taken by the stereotyped person. In this respect inaccurate and uncritical
generalizations might be equally counterproductive. After studying Hofstede's dimensions a conflict party or a mediator might, for instance, when dealing with a Chinese, focus on group values only to find out later that, in spite of what is typical of the Chinese culture, the person is more of an individualist (13).
Moreover, it is necessary to remember that all scientific cultural generalizations are filtered through the cultural perspective of the researcher. No matter how objective scholars endeavour to be, it is impossible for them to escape from their cultural background. The four original cultural dimensions proposed by Hofstede are a perfect example of such tendency. Looking at the problem through his own cultural glasses, Hofstede designed his research questions on the basis of Western values. While searching for Western beliefs in the East, he failed to find the typical ones central to Asian culture. The dimension of Confucian dynamism was, thus, first developed when the set of questions was prepared by a group of Eastern scholars (14).
4.3. Intercultural Conflict
Conflict, of course, is inevitable in all human social interactions that occur at multiple levels - interpersonal, social, national, and international. Conflict needs not to be considered something bad or something to be avoided at all times; in fact, there are often reasons to treat conflict as an opportunity for growth and development. Finding a universal and exact definition of conflict is just as impossible as in the previously 'culture'. For the purpose of this paper
conflict can be defined as the incompatibility or else the perceived incompatibility of goals, needs, values, positions and actions between at least two interdependent parties. There is a considerable variation between the ways different cultures view conflict. In the West conflict is perceived more in terms of an opportunity to recognize, confront and, finally, to overcome problems. It is considered to be an indispensable and potentially productive part of everyday life that prevents the building up of tensions and more severe disagreements. Similarly, an honest and productive discussion followed by a reconciliation form a basis for further development and an improvement of social relationships. On the other hand, Eastern cultures tend to portray conflict more as a disturbance of peace rather than a possibility of progress. Since social harmony is one of the highest values, it should be strived and protected at all costs.
Therefore, possible threats such as conflicts should be repelled in advance and failure to do so is marked by definite social disapproval. Even if the conflict is successfully solved, it is still condemned in the name of peace and harmony (15). In short, differences in conflict orientation determine the way different cultures deal with conflict. Whereas in West people generally tend to deal with conflicts by confrontation and negotiations, Easterners preferred to avoid them in the belief that conflicts are wrong, unnecessary and destructive. Moreover, in societies where conflicts are generally resented direct face-to-face confrontation is
equally unacceptable. Therefore, in order to save face and to reduce to the minimum the already existent disturbance of harmony, the parties tend to seek the help of an intermediary or else it is imposed on them by the society. Although conflict mediation varies considerably across cultures, it is generally practiced all over the world including Western countries. Thus, when analysing intercultural conflict resolution this study will refer both to individual face-to-face confrontation as well as to third party intervention.
Although combining two rather illusive concepts of culture and conflict is likely to be problematic, the best way to circumvent the potential confusion is to refer to the previously chosen definitions of the two concepts. Thus, cultural conflict would be defined as the real or perceived incompatibility of goals, needs, values, positions and actions between at least two individuals with a different "collective programming of the mind" (16).
The definition focuses on the cultural identity of the parties instead of the source of conflict. Although it might be argued that an intercultural conflict is one based on cultural differences, the explanation encompasses both conflicts based on cultural grounds as well as those concerning issues completely unrelated to culture. As stated previously, however, in many cases even conflicts which arise from differences other than culture tend to be either escalated by it or else tend to express themselves through a cultural channel. That is why; for the purpose of this study it is also important to examine the effect of cultural awareness on the resolution of non-culturally based conflicts between
individuals form different cultures. In contrast to a non-intercultural conflict, an intercultural one has an extra dimension. That is to say, apart from the relational and content layer, an intercultural conflict has an additional cultural one (17).
Intercultural conflict, both individual and collective, is generally rooted in an economic, social or historical context. For instance, the unequal distribution of wealth encourages people to seek better prospects outside their home country. If their country of destination suffers from economical problems, however insignificant they might seem in comparison with poorer countries, high migration is likely to lead to racial tensions. As a nation tends to perceive its country as its property, it usually blames an unwanted invasion of foreigners for economic downturn and the lack of available jobs. Another underlying reason of intercultural conflicts is social inequality between various cultural groups, which can result in resentment, and hostility. Conflicts may also have a long historical background of antagonism such as, for example, in the case of Jews and Arabs. As new generations are raised in hatred towards their opponents, the past enmity turns into a vicious circle which fuels further escalation of conflict.
5. Benefits of cultural awareness
Although talking about differing cultural perspectives isn't easy, the opening a dialogue is the best way to it's identify. Many people assume similarities, and may not even realize they have a cultural bias that
interferes with effective
communication. A person might fear not knowing everything about another culture or feel frustrated that someone doesn't recognize that he's well intentioned. Therefore a dialogue is the only way to become aware of differences, identify shared interests and the self-determination for integration. But not all cultures are comfortable with direct communication because of a diversity of languages and cultures. These two dimensions of communications problems constitute means of ethnic integration and disintegration as well.
An equally differing factor mentioned in the introducing chapter accords to the concept of good communication as the key to intercultural communication repair and resolving conflict in the business world. For example, creates more opportunity for misunderstanding: differences in meanings of the words or mental images and cultures as a whole, when people at work are form different cultures: by dealing effectively with conflict in the workplace. It can't be forgotten that the important ground rules is the possession of common cultural knowledge. The communication is based on it and the on language rules as well that exist in, gives definitely the positive effect. Language and Culture organise the world of people speaking and give the way to get access of two consciousnesses: verbal and ethnic. The aspect of comparison strategy, looking for differences of two distinct images involves obtaining the new knowledge of the culture.
5.1. Conflict resolution styles
Another stumbling bloc to minimising the negative impact of miscommunication is cultural differences in conflict resolution styles. Each culture has developed its own ways of solving disagreements, which it believes are most effective and successful. As these styles were created in a cultural context in order to fulfil the needs and to serve the purposes of a certain society, they reflect culture-specific values and attitudes. Strategies that work effectively within one culture need not do so within a different cultural context. When two parties are involved in a conflict, they would naturally apply their own cultural approach to conflict resolution. If these techniques happen to vary considerably from one another, the consequent interaction might be compared to an incompatible dance of two people each doing different steps.
This phenomenon is best illustrated by the example of mediation. Although third party intervention is a common practice all over the world, there are considerable differences between cultures. In traditional mediation practiced, for example, in China the mediator is a member of the community familiar both with the parties and the context of the conflict, which apart from directing the process is also expected to advise the parties how best to solve their conflict. The mediation takes place in informal settings and can either be conducted face-to-face or else the mediator can meet with both parties separately. On the other hand, in the Western model of mediation the
intervener is an impartial stranger to both parties with no background knowledge about the conflict, whose role is only to help the parties reach an agreement without giving them personal advice. Mediation is based on direct confrontation and conducted in formal settings (18). These main differences are only an example of how even seemingly comparable conflict resolution styles differ from one another. Other cultural background may influence the way people deal with conflicts.
There are at least five styles of conflict management: dominating style: win-lose, that reflects high concern for self and low concern for others. The second one is integrating style concerning for both self and others, reflected in an open and direct exchange of information aimed at reaching a solution acceptable to both parties and seeing as most effective for most conflicts, but requires the most time and energy. As next compromising style- reflects moderate degree of concern for self and others, involves sharing and exchanging information and values a kind of "fairness" whereby both parties give up something to find a mutually acceptable decision. By obliging style one party plays down the differences that separate the two parties while emphasizing the commonalities and the last one: avoiding style reflects low concern for self and others in cultural contexts, but in some other contexts this is viewed as an appropriate style that enhances harmony of relationships. In one example mentioned above "manager and workers -members of to different cultures where Arab preferred "fairness", while a member of an
American culture prefers dominating style of conflict resolution.
The mentioned above examples demonstrate only a few of the numerous possible differences in conflict resolution styles. A lack of cultural sensibility in this matter is likely to end in confusion and failure. This phenomenon is supported by theories proposed by academics that started to research the applicability of Western conflict resolution practices in non-Western cultural settings. Two anthropologists and conflict resolution scholars Kevin Avruch and Peter Black argue that culture is an essential element in both the theoretical and practical approaches to conflict management. Another conflict resolution researcher John Paul Lederach suggests that resolution techniques should be situated in the cultural context of the conflict parties. In order to find out if cultural awareness is helpful in intercultural communication and conflict resolution, it is essential both to situate the problem in an appropriate conceptual framework and to analyse the main advantages of a cultural aspect together with the potential situations where it might prove useful. One of the characteristic keys of an intercultural conflict is ambiguity. Although the exact influence of culture is difficult to evaluate precisely, it is beyond doubt that culture exerts a considerable impact on perception, ways of thinking, values and behaviour. As the understanding of the outside world is culturally determined, intercultural encounters tend to be confusing. That is to say, people interpret the behaviour of others in terms of their
own cultural ways and since the meaning of these behaviours varies across cultures, the disturbed communication process is likely to end in a misunderstanding. Invariably, the same phenomenon applies to conflict resolution. Regardless of the fact whether or not the source of conflict stems from communicational misinterpretation, unrecognised
cultural differences in communication and behaviour patterns tend to complicate the conflict even further. Lederach suggests that resolution techniques should be situated in the cultural context of the conflict parties (19). Concentrating on cultural differences might draw the attention away from the real problem that may not be culturally based. One of the often-cited conflict resolution tips is to separate the people from the problem. Negative attitudes towards the opponent often unable the parties to solve their conflict, whereas concentrating on the problem itself makes it more manageable (20).
5.2. Prevention of disturbing factors in intercultural communication
Thus, cultural awareness seems to be the only possible way of eliminating or at least reducing this potential threat of misapprehensions. Although in order to preserve a comprehensible structure of the paper the confusing cultural differences will be discussed individually, in reality they are interconnected and inseparable from each other. In all the following aspects the first step to cultural awareness is to become conscious of one's own cultural practices. The tricky side of culture is that people often fail to notice its influence on their own
behaviour. Although most are aware of the evident differences in the visible aspects of everyday life such as traditions, customs or dress, as far as the less obvious elements of culture such as values, verbal and non-verbal communication are concerned, most people also live in the conscious or unconscious conviction of the their universality.
An anthropologist Ralph Linton once summarized this phenomenon with an interesting comparison saying that the last thing a fish would ever notice is water (21). Thus, instead of being based on superficial knowledge about noticeable cultural differences, cultural awareness has to be founded in the perception of one's own culturally determined way of life. Understanding other cultures will in turn improve the knowledge of one's own.
6. Ethnopsycholinguistic model of lacuna and its reflection in empiric experience
Lacunas are divided into three major classifications: cultural lacunas, lacunas of the contents and pragmatics of messages and textual lacunas.
Lacunas present in the interaction of two or more cultures are called intercultural lacunas and those present between two or more groups of people of different levels within the some culture are called "intra-cultural lacunas". I will look more closely at the cultural lacunas that can be further classified into subjective lacunas, lacunas of communicative activity and lacunas related to cultural space.
An example of how subtle and ubiquitous this process of "gaps" in
misunderstanding can become could be taken from my personal experience The lacuna model originally discovered by J.A. Sorokin represents a method of examining cultural texts that has its origin in Russian "
Ethnopsycholinguistics". "Lacunas" can be comprehended as cultural specific information that is "missing" and is simply not understood or difficult by communication by non-members of the given culture. This concept was used as a tool for unlocking cultural differences or missing "gaps" in text. Although the model of cross-cultural phenomena has been mainly employed in translation studies, in this chapter I would like to mention only these types of lacunas, which appear in different examples of my academic paper.
According to the model for the Classification of Cultural Differences -my contacts with foreigners during a five-month residence in Spain. After reading one article referring to "The Intercultural Communication: how to avoid the "misunderstandings" in Spain?", I came to the conclusion that the results of my survey have a lot to do with this text.
For a foreigner coming to a different country everything is very new, not only the language but also the customs, eating tradition, cuisine, mentality and ways of behaving in various situations. The cultural differences are visible in most areas of life starting with the way of greeting well-known or newly met people. Instead of shaking hands, Spaniards kiss each other's cheeks twice, even people who do not know you, always ask "Que tal?" (How are you?),
slapping you on the shoulder? (It's similar with Americans). It was many times embarrassing when I had to exchange 20 kisses with strangers because if not, they would be insult that I did not respect the customs in their land. This issue can be classified as a Lacuna of a communication activity group: as a routine and etiquette lacuna, because this gesture of kissing belongs to "the everyday behaviour of people caused by daily activities" and refers to what is deemed mannerly or polite behaviour" (22). The examples confirming that it is suitable for paralinguistic and behavioural-specific lacunas is namely: they speak very loudly, do not let you finish your sentence. They are used to screaming during conversations, which for me was quite difficult to understand. The next type of "gap" that caused a lot of daily problems and made me nervous very often was the luck of time schedules at the bus stops. This "strategy that is used to solve problems and is culturally specific" is called mental lacuna. Among young people I have managed to observe "lacuna of humor" during watching TV or discussions. Spanish people spend a lot of leisure time on watching not important quiz shows on TV or at "fiestas" in clubs or discos from midnight to about 7 o'clock in the morning. In public places, in the streets, cafeterias, shops or buses they like to be very loud, they also push people around without saying "perdone" (I'm sorry).
Their expressive way of explaining everything with many gestures and hand gesticulation was not really understandable for me.
Another difference that I found typical for this nation and especially for Andalusia region was that even young people do not want to learn any foreign languages and prefer to communicate only in their national language. It is not possible to have a conversation in other language than Spanish. The problem with the intercultural communication became wider because as I have noticed their Andalusian dialect was not easy to understand because they were cutting the words.
Most opinions about Spanish people that can be convenient with "Character lacunas referring to the stereotypical reception of the national character of the other countries" I have heard before my arrival. They were true, except for "a healthy Mediterranean cuisine" that should be typical for southern countries. I was very surprised and disappointed that "the common cultural reception of national character" about it was not actually the case in their daily life. Everyone offers you big meals, being very surprised why you eat so little. They are used to having a 5-plate dinner (a starter, a soup, a salad, main dish with meat and potatoes and icecream for a desert), which for me was way too much and I could not really say "no thank you" not to hurt their feelings (23). Among Lacunas related to cultural space can be found an ethnographic lacuna that includes special drinks like vine or coffee, certain food dishes like paella or varieties of see-food that I had to get used to eating. Except for this I would like to mention the geographic lacunas: characteristic for Southern Andalusian Mountains, rocky coasts with
characteristic palm trees and beaches, areas with very few plants situated very closely to the sea-coast.
From my point of view the most troublesome issue was being patient during shopping (I had to queue for about half an hour every time), in the post offices and banks because they are never in a hurry and do everything very slowly. The Spanish word "Manana" (eng: tomorrow) I heard very often while dealing with some important matters at the university. This very common way of thinking in Spanish society -"syllogistic lacuna" I had to accept although I prefer a German correctness and punctuality. In Spanish mentality (mental and behavioural - specific lacunas) it is normal to come late, even one hour, without informing about it, to close the shop before time without giving any reason or to stop the car in the middle of the street, where it is forbidden to park, just to buy cigarettes or simply chat with friends. At the beginning it was difficult for me to accept all these "odd" and "strange" things and rules because I was simply not used to these ways of greeting people and different "chaotic" forms of dealing with problems. Although I come from Poland, during my stay in Germany I got used to punctuality, concrete answers, tidiness, etc. Spanish people are likely to throw rubbish and cigarettes on the floor, no matter where, inside the building or in the park. To those facts is suitable the mentioned above a type of "routine lacuna". These cultural differences in communicative activities were sometimes "nightmares" for me
because I couldn't find the "logic" explanation of their system and way of thinking or managing.
But as it often happens in life, everything has its positive and negative aspects, also Spanish, or maybe I should say Mediterranean people. At this point I can mention one of the subjective lacunas called cultural -emotive art that directly characterize the cultural temperament and the way that feelings are expressed in public as well. The members of this south European culture are warm, family caring, optimistic, lively, talkative, open, helpful, they really know how to enjoy life and to make the most of it; for example they spend a lot of time in cafeterias with their friends, just enjoying the beginning or the end of the day. Their laughter, good mood and friendly attitude towards foreigners could easily encourage others to communicate and not to hesitate to ask for anything you need. Most of them were very helpful for me as a "member of other culture" when I was asking about the way direction and they were curious from which country I am and what I am doing in Almeria. This issue has a character of "Lacunas of communicative situation". In comparison with Germans, making a telephone call in the middle of the night does not make anyone angry or aggressive.
I can easily confirm that the knowledge of language is not enough to feel comfortable, careless and try to avoid misunderstanding. After a month of excursions and new experiences, I sometimes was feeling like being home, in Poland, even though I missed my family and my culture very much.
Despite some mistakes of mine and unintentional ignorance of Spanish culture- according to the "ethnopsycholinguistic language"-lacunas of cultural stock, and unintentional acts, that time of my life was very valuable. Contacts with different foreigners, even Mexicans and Venezuelans, taught me that understanding of "normality" depends on diversity of languages and individuals, especially while having a feeling of not being understood by "others". Every human being has different personality and you shouldn't generalize while talking about people, "shuffle" them according to their origin, skin colour or religion.
As my survey shows the most important point is: to know better all possible factors which determine culture, to be aware of differences between different kinds of social groups, remember that stereotypes about "others" are on one hand true but on the other hand can be very misleading. The last keyword in good communication is not to follow these stereotypes and not to take them seriously while judging other nationalities.
The model described above can be utilized in an international advertising research to detect cultural differences in advertising creative strategies or architecture style of building as well (24). From the perspective of the cultural diversity in America buildings are line organised, the houses are very similar, in Japan all is organised "not in order", differently. The buildings of industrial planning don't have a European
character: numbered from 1 (from the lowest to the highest) but are situated according to the date of building.
Another very vast and interesting subject that was explained during the classes "Ethnopsychlinguistics of Translation" headed Dr., Prof. Irina Markovina was how to eliminate lacunas by translation process of the semiotic product of verbal consciousness - a text. The answer was that the strategies in translating case are: looking for equivalents and substitutions, in one's native culture, making the comments, explaining, filling of the gaps that affect communication, comparing,
associating, considering and analysing differences between two images of the world. But to facilitate dealing with the elimination of "gaps", except the methods for investigation of verbal consciousness described above, the main way to comprehend members of different cultures is an understanding of one's own culture. This for sure helps to tolerate the differences of "others", the integration of diverse people, prevention of discrimination and prejudices, conflict dissolution and living in harmony and peace as well.
Indeed, each use of communication exhibits an attitude, and an attitude implies an act, and all human actions have moral consequences and responsibility.
6. Survey Results
Let me provide a few illustrations from my questionnaire form. I have prepared some survey about intercultural communication problems among twenty two people: ten men and twelve women 22 - 45
years of age: my friends and a few other people (intercultural team) from my work - foreigners having lived in Germany for some years: from Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Croatia, Ukraine, Denmark, England, Maroko, Korea, four people from Poland and six from Germany. According to the research presented during our classes, the results were various, but what is very interesting, in some cases also similar.
Diagram 1.
One of the questions was: "Mention 3 words or expressions that you associate with Poles and Germans". The answers I received were as follows: Germans - stiff, well organized, punctual, and not flexible for example in social and office services, Poles: thefts of cars, alcohol, hospitable, catholic nation, shrewd.
Next question: "What is the most important factor responsible for success and failure in the intercultural communication?" The conclusion is based on various spontaneous answers. Unfortunately at the first places are: language (47%) and tolerance (25%), the third position was taken by: knowledge and awareness of cultural differences
How do stereotypes influence the described concept? Can you find them in communication process and judging other people (especially other nationalities)? Sixteen persons had the same opinion about stereotypes, claiming that they disturb the effective communication process, and six of them said that play some role. I have received their opinions on two nationalities: Polish and German. How are they perceived by?
(21%), and the last by: attitude towards foreigners.
How relevant is the language, what role does the language play in communication? "The knowledge of the language is the most important factor that contributes the misunderstanding situations": 17 people were for and 5 were against,
Opinion about Germans
50% 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0%
not flexible, well organized punctuality stiff
40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0%
Opinion about Poles
hospitality
claiming that the language should be known very well not only on the communicative level, because it makes it easier to communicate, exchange opinions, come into closer contacts with others, make friends, understand intentions and wishes of other people. Eighteen persons claimed that English, as an intercultural language is not enough for effective communication, because as one person said: "it is the obligation to know the language of the county you live in very well. "What according to you is the main reason for it?" Not speaking the language limits, blocks people, limits their self confidence, prevents good knowing of "others" which creates many often wrong associations or opinions, and strengthens the role of stereotypes and generalisation.
According to the answer to the question: how relevant are this cultural features? Tolerance and awareness of cultural dissimilarities in the general context are very important-on the first place; third position was taken by: rules and norms, customs and religion were on the last place. The answers also include: the language, other regulations and rules. A Spanish man and a Greek girl mentioned willingness of integration and meeting new people.
That idea is one of the disparities in relation to other countries. People in Germany are very individual, unwilling to create contacts; try not to make too many friends. I don't think it's just because of their unwillingness, I thinks it comes from their mentality and behaviour. "What in your culture or
your country makes the most difficulties in communicating with other nationalities? If you live abroad what are 3 most important differences you've noticed between the culture of the people in your country and the country you live in. The examples of cultural differences given by foreigners living in Germany were: Germans are materialists, much better organized than Italians, they are crude in comparison with Spaniards, Italians or Greeks, even Poles, they have prejudices and are noisy, they are wealthy, very individual, they like to complain, they are hurt-sincere, direct, curt and they create a very powerful nation.
Comparing some features that I observed in the intercultural marriages (the daily life of my sister and my friend married to a Marokiese man) I can say that although the language is a very important factor to discuss and to express own opinions and feelings with respect to the different culture (Polish and Danish) doesn't create any obstacles in building a close, harmonious and full of understanding relationship. As my inquiry shows and confirms other cultural dimensions are much more relevant. Individual priorities and human values are the base for thinking and communicating between two people of different cultures. I have noticed that in this case, like in every happy relationship the most valuable issues are: the willingness to understand each other, tolerance and patience, being open for the partner and being ready to compromise, even while some complicated situations are quite hard to deal with.
However, sometimes it's not only the customs that are the biggest obstacle in relationships. For two people of totally different cultures, Muslim and Catholic, there is something much more complicated. For Alice it was hard to accept some of Nori's habits, for example: smacking during eating, or holding a fork in the right hand. She didn't know much about Arabian culture and was looking through stereotypes. But her parents and family needed a full year to accept their daughter's marriage.
These answers from my little research are the summary of my opinions and the confirmation of that what was said during our classes. Of course everything is very individual: for some people what is the most important is the values, for someone else the way of behaving - everyone acts according to their own priorities, rules and norms (25).
8. Conclusion
The „golden rule' of combining opposite viewpoints is also appropriate when considering the impact of cultural awareness on dispute resolution. It is not effective to follow blindly one of the two extremes, while totally discarding the other. Cultural sensitivity can be both beneficial and potentially counterproductive. Considerable cultural differences in values, conflict management styles as well as verbal and non-verbal communication patterns have a vast potential for causing misunderstandings, which undermine the resolution process. Thus, in this case cultural knowledge and its appropriate application are vital assets in both preventing and
clearing up misapprehensions. The parties arrive at a better understanding not only of their opponent but also of their own cultural beliefs and practices. Moreover, by making allowances for otherwise confusing differences and adjusting their behaviour in order not to offend each other, the participants feel more comfortable and at ease. Furthermore, a pleasant and relaxed atmosphere is an ideal foundation for finding an appropriate solution and reaching a compromise.
On the other hand, due to the fact that both cultural influences and human behaviour are highly broad and intricate concepts, in order to at least partly comprehend them, people have to make use of generalizations. These, however, entail several disadvantages. Without adequate awareness of their limitations, generalizations might turn into stereotypes, which have a negative impact on intercultural dispute resolution. They are very likely to rely on stereotypes to guide our behaviour, rather than deal with the real features of the people in given situation. By communicating their beliefs with verbal and non-verbal clues, people can influence their interlocutors to act in a way consistent with the stereotype. In addition, due to the fact that people interpret new information according to their existing beliefs, stereotypes are very persistent. While distorting the mental representation and the perception of foreigners, stereotypes are a serious threat to dispute resolution. Another problem is that both stereotypes and generalization overshadow the importance of individual personality and the impact of external factors on behaviour. Thus, a cultural lens in dispute resolution
might lead to an inaccurate interpretation of the situation and, consequently, might focus the attention on cultural issues instead of the real problem.
In conclusion, cultural awareness in the intercultural communication and resolution of the increasing problems has both advantages and disadvantages. The answer to the problem is to maintain a cultural perspective at the same time reducing or even eliminating its possible drawbacks. In spite of their limitations, generalizations are an indispensable part of social sciences. Their efficacy depends on their appropriate use connected with the awareness of their potential pitfalls. Similarly, the same approach should be adopted in intercultural misunderstanding prevention. In order to be helpful in this resolution process, a cultural perspective has to
be accompanied by a full and keen awareness of its limitations. In other words, cultural knowledge can only be beneficial when the participants bear in mind the dangers of such an approach and are careful not to fall victim to stereotyping. Thus, while preventing cultural differences from disrupting the resolution process, the parties can start building on the similarities.
Drawing from the key ideas of a cultural variability perspective, the following sub-sections identify the different lenses that create intercultural frictions and conflicts between individualists and collectivists. These lenses include: different dilemma assumptions, dissimilar rhythms, conflict norms and styles, and ethnocentric lenses. Culture-based lenses can distort our perceptions and interpretations of exchanged messages in miscommunication episodes.
1. Hofstede, Geert (1991): "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind", Cambridge: 4.
2. Hofstede, Geert (1991): "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind", Cambridge: 46.
3. Bennett, Milton J. (1998): "Intercultural Communication: A Current Perspective" in: "Basic Concepts of Intercultural Communication" (1998), Yarmouth, Maine: 12-15.
4. Merriam-Webster - Online (2003): "Sprachgefuhl" at: http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?va=sprachgefuhl, accessed on August, 2003.
5. Ross, Lee; Nisbett, Richard E. (1991): "Person and the Situation, Chapter One" at:
http://www.stanford.edu/~mmorten/or gweb/summaries/mse/content/Ross+N isbett.html, accessed on August 9, 2003.
6. Wright, Walter A. (2002): "Intercultural Issues in Mediation: A Practical Guide to Individualist and Collectivist Paradigms" at: http://www.acresolution.org/research. nsf/key/art-cult, accessed on August 9, 2003.
7. Bennett, Milton J. (1998): "Intercultural Communication: A Current Perspective" in: "Basic Concepts of Intercultural
Communication" (1998), Yarmouth, Maine: 20-22.
8. Barsky, Allan (1998): "The role of culture in achieving Organizational Integrity, and managing conflicts between cultures" at:
http ://faculty.biu .ac.il/~steing/conflict /cross.htm, accessed on August 9, 2003
9. Cynthia Gallois , Callan Victor (Chichester 1997): "Communication and culture- a guide for Practice, P.3
10. Wright, Walter A.(2002): "Intercultural Issues in Mediation: A Practical Guide to Individualist and Collectivist Paradigms", http://www.acresolution.org/research. nsf/key/art-cult, access: on August 9, 2003
11. Cynthia Gallois , Callan Victor (Chichester 1997): "Communication and culture- a guide for Practice P. 716
12. Ross, Kelley L. (2000): "Ethnic Prejudice, Stereotypes, Discrimination, and the Free Market" at:
http://www.friesian.com/discrim.htm2 003,
13. Blum, Michael; Callister, Ronda; Jian Jin, Deng; Kim, Nam-Hyeon; Sohn, Dong-Won; Wall, James A. (1998): "Mediation in the USA, China, Japan, and Korea' in: Security Dialogue 29(2): 235-248
14. Hodge, Sheida (2000): "Confucian Dynamism - Truth vs. Virtue"at:
http://www.englisheditor.net/Wsampl
15. Blum, Michael; Callister, Ronda; Jian Jin, Deng; Kim, Nam-Hyeon; Sohn, Dong-Won; Wall, James A. (1998): "Mediation in the USA, China, Japan, and Korea' in: Security Dialogue 29(2): 235-248.
16. Hofstede, Geert (1991): "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind", Cambridge: 4.
17. Williams, Andrea (1994): "Resolving Conflict in a Multicultural Environment" in: MCS Conciliation Quarterly - Summer 1994: 2-6.
18. Augsberger, David W. (Louisville 1992): "Conflict Mediation Across Cultures: Pathways and Patterns"
19. Center of Conflict Resolution (2000): "Culture and Conflict Resolution" at:
http://www.bradford.ac.uk/acad/confr es/dislearn/3 part3.html, accessed on August 5, 2003.
20. Barsky, Allan (1998): "The role of culture in achieving Organizational Integrity, and managing conflicts between cultures" at: http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~steing/conflict /cross.htm, accessed on August 9, 2003.
21. Zaharna, Randa S. (2000): "Intercultural Communication and International Public Relations:
An Integrated Literature Review and Critique" in: Communication Quarterly, 48 (2000): 85-100.
22. (Text from our class) A Lacunian Approach to Cultural Texts, "Major Classification of Lacunas", P.48
23. Esperanza G. Sánchez, ECOS de Espana y Latinoamerica, „Comunicación intercultural", P.10-13
24. Grodzki, Erika. Using Lacuna Theory to Detect Cultural Differences in American and German Automotive Advertising. Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Peter Lang Europäischer Verlag der Wissenschaft;
"A Lacunian Approach to Cultural Wissenschaften, P. 39-50
Texts", Europäischer Verlag der 25. based on my survey
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