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1. Karapetov A.G., Savelev A.I. Svoboda dogovora i ee predelyi. V2-h tomah. - M.: Statut, 2012. - T. 2: Predelyi svobodyi opredeleniya usloviy dogovora v zarubezhnom i rossiyskom prave. - 453 s.
2. Tsyibulenko Z.I., Chausskaya O.A. Problemyi sootvetstvennogo primeneniya grazhdansko-pravovyih norm // Aktualnyie problemyi grazhdanskogo prava, grazhdanskogo i arbitrazhnogo protsessa: materialyi nauchnoy konferentsii. Voronezh, 15-16 marta 2002 goda/pod red. E.I. Nosyirevoy, T.N. Safronovoy. Ch. 1: Grazhdanskoe pravo. - 408 c.
3. Nikolyukin S.V. Kuplya-prodazha tovarov vo vneshnetorgovom oborote. - M.: Yustitsinform, 2010. - 200 s.
4.Tsvaygert K., KYotts H. Vvedenie v sravnitelnoe pravovedenie v sfere chastnogo prava. V 2-h tomah. - M.: Mezhdunarodnyie otnosheniya, 2000. - Tom 1. Osnovyi: Per. s nem. - 480 s.
5. Ahmedov A.Ya. Nepoimenovannyie dogovoryi v grazhdanskom prave Rossii: Diss. kand. yurid. nauk. - Saratov, 2014. - 199 s.
6. Shershenevich G.F. Kurs russkogo grazhdanskogo prava. V2-h tomah. - M.: Rossiyskiy universitet druzhbyi narodov, 1994. - T. 2. - 460 s.
7. Krasavchikov O.A. Sistema otdelnyih vidov obyazatelstv // Sovetskaya yustitsiya. - 1960. -№ 5. - S. 40-45.
8. Grazhdanskoe pravo: Uchebnik. V 3-h tomah / Otv. red. A.P. Sergeeva, Yu.K. Tolstogo. - M.: TK Velbi, Prospekt, 2005. - T. 2.: 4-e izd., pererab. i dop. - 848 s.
9. Kushnir I.V. Grazhdanskoe pravo / URL:http://be5.biz/pravo/g029/107.html.
10. Agarkov M.M. Obyazatelstvo po sovetskomu grazhdanskomu pravu/ M.M. Agarkov. - M.: Yuridicheskoe izdatelstvo NKYu SSSR, 1940. - 192 s.
11. Veshchnye prava v Respublike Kazahstan /Pod red. M.K. Sulejmenova. - Almaty: Zheti zhargy, 1999. - 360 s.
12. Palandt Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch. Beck'sche Kurz-Kommentare. Band 7. 62. Aufl. Bearbeitet von Dr. Peter Bassenge, Prof. Dr. Uwe Diederichsen, Prof. Dr. Helmut Heinrichs, Prof. Dr. Hans Putzo, Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Brudermüller, Wolfgang Edenhofer, Prof. Dr. Andreas Heldrich, Hartwig Sprau, , Walter Weidenkaff. - München: Beck, 2003. - S. 3800.
y^K 347
THE HISTORY OF THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
OF THE CONCEPT OF NON-DEFINED CONTRACTS IN THE CIVIL LAW OF KAZAKHSTAN, LATVIA AND GERMANY
Dilmukhametov Salavat
Associate Professor of Adilet Law School, Caspian Public
University, Dr. PhD, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstanstan
Keywords: non-defined contract, Roman law, contract law, the principle of "pacta sunt servanda ", freedom of contract. non-defined contract, Roman law, contract law, the principle of "pacta sunt servanda", freedom of contract.
Abstract. Non-defined contracts are an integral part of any market economy. Despite its undeniable nature and wide application in contract practice nowadays, the non-defined contract has gone through a very long and complex path of its legal development before it finally becomes established as a fundamental element offreedom of contract and self-supporting unit in the system of civil contracts of Kazakhstan, Latvia and Germany.
Based on historical and legal analysis, the author considers the main stages of development of atypical contracts construction in the civil law of Kazakhstan, Latvia and Germany. Also in the article, the initial period of development of non-defined contracts in Roman and canon law is investigated.
Non-defined contracts originate in Roman law and initially they were not provided with legal protection. The fall of the Western Roman Empire and the formation of other states on its territory led to the fact that Roman law practically became "dead" law. In medieval Europe, canon law began to be of great importance, in view of the fact that the ecclesiastical jurisdiction extended to
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a wide range of relations, which we now regard as secular (contractual, hereditary, family, labor relations, etc.).
Despite the well-established principle of "pacta sunt servanda" in canonical medieval law, the doctrine of non-defined contracts has not been finally established. It was in the New Age that all non-defined contracts without any conditions or restrictions began to enjoy procedural protection and were considered concluded from the moment the parties reached agreement on all the essential terms of the contract.
ЦАЗАЦСТАН, ЛАТВИЯ ЖЭНЕ ГЕРМАНИЯНЫЦ АЗАМАТТЬЩ Ц¥ЦЫГЫНДАГЫ АТАЛМАГАН ШАРТТАР Т¥ЖЫРЫМДАМАСЫНЫЦ
ШЫГУ ЖЭНЕ ДАМУ ТАРИХЫ
Дильмухаметов Салават Лукманович
Каспий цогамдыцуниверситеттщ «Эдглет» жогары цуцыц мектебшц цауымдастырылган профессоры, зац гылымдарыныц кандидаты, Алматы ц., Цазацстан Республикасы
Тушн создер: аталмаган шарт, рим цуцыгы, шарттыц цуцыц, принцип «pacta sunt servanda», шарттыц ертндт.
Аннотация. Аталмаган шарттар кез келген нарыцтыц экономиканыц ажырамас белi-гi болып табылады. Аталмаган шарттыц даусыз сипаты жэне цазiргi тацда шарттыц тэжiрибеде кецтен цолданылуына царамастан, ол шарт ерктдтшц негiзгi элементi жэне Казацстан, Латвия жэне Германия азаматтыц шарттары ЖYйесiндегi дербес конструк-циясы болып тYпкiлiктi бекттгенге дешн езшц цуцыцтыц дамуыныц ете узац эрi кYрделi жолынан етт1
Автор тарихи-цуцыцтыц талдау негiзiнде Казацстан, Латвия жэне Германияныц азаматтыц цуцыгындагы аталмаган келшм-шарт концепциясы дамуыныц негiзгi кезецдерт царастырады. Сондай-ац мацалада рим жэне канондыц цуцыцтагы аталмаган шарттар-дыц дамуыныц бастапцы кезец зерттеледь
Аталмаган шарттар ез бастауын рим цуцыгынан алады жэне алгашцы кезде олар та-лаппен цоргалмады. Батыс Рим империясыныц цулауы жэне оныц аумагында басца мемле-кеттердщ цурылуы рим цуцыгыныц w ЖYзiнде «елЬ> цуцыцца айналуына экелдi. Орта гасы-рлыц Еуропада шiркеу юрисдикциясыныц цазiргiуацытта зайырлы реттде царастыратын царым-цатынастардыц (шарттыц, мурагерлж, отбасылыц, ецбек цатынастары жэне т.б.) кец ауцымына да таралуына байланысты канондыц цуцыц зор мацызга ие болды. Канондыц ортагасырлыц цуцыцтагы «pacta sunt servanda» цагидатына царамастан, аталмаган шарттардыц доктринасы тYпкiлiктi бекттмеген. Дэл осы Жаца дэуiрде барлыц аталмаган шарттар цандай да бiр шарттарсыз немесе шектеулерЫз w ЖYргiзу цоргауын пайдалана бастады жэне тараптар шарттыц барлыц елеулi ережелерi бойынша келШмге цол жетюзген сэттен бастап жасалган деп саналды.
ИСТОРИЯ ВОЗНИКНОВЕНИЯ И РАЗВИТИЯ КОНЦЕПЦИИ НЕПОИМЕНОВАННЫХ ДОГОВОРОВ В ГРАЖДАНСКОМ ПРАВЕ КАЗАХСТАНА, ЛАТВИИ И ГЕРМАНИИ
Дильмухаметов Салават Лукманович
Ассоциированный профессор Высшей школы права «Эдшет» Каспийского общественного университета, доктор PhD, г. Алматы, Республика Казахстан
Ключевые слова: непоименованный договор, римское право, договорное право, принцип «pacta sunt servanda», свобода договора.
Аннотация. Непоименованные договоры являются неотъемлемой частью любой рыночной экономики. Несмотря на его неоспоримый характер и широкое применение в договорной практике в сегодняшние дни, непоименованный договор прошел очень долгий и сложный путь своего правового развития, перед тем как окончательно утвердится основополагающим элементом свободы договора и самостоятельной конструкцией в системе гражданских договоров Казахстана, Латвии и Германии.
На основе историко-правового анализа, автор рассматривает основные этапы раз-
Азаматтыц жэне азаматтыц ic цуцыгы
вития концепции непоименованного договора в гражданском праве Казахстана, Латвии и Германии. Также в статье исследуется начальный период развития непоименованных договоров в римском и каноническом праве.
Непоименованные договоры берут своё начало в римском праве и первоначально они не были снабжены исковой защитой. Падение Западной Римской империи и образование на ее территории других государств, привело к тому, что римское право практически стало «мертвым» правом. В средневековой Европе стало иметь большое значение каноническое право, ввиду того, что церковная юрисдикция распространялась и на широкий круг отношений, которые мы сейчас рассматриваем как светские (договорные, наследственные, семейные, трудовые отношения и др.). Несмотря на устоявшейся принцип «pacta sunt servanda» в каноническом средневековом праве доктрина непоименованных договоров окончательно не утвердилась. Именно в эпоху Нового времени все непоименованные договоры без каких-либо условий или ограничений стали пользоваться процессуальной защитой и считались заключенными с момента достижения сторонами согласия по всем существенным условиям договора.
Non-defined contracts originated in Roman law. Initially, they were not provided with legal protection because of strict system of contracts recognized by courts.
In order for the concluded agreement between the parties to have legal force, it was necessary that the agreement be either a real, verbal or literal contract or one of four defined types of consensual contracts (purchase-sale, hire, mandate and partnership); otherwise, it was recognized as a "nude pact". The classical Roman law was based on the fact that the "nude pact" does not give the right to actionable protection ("ex nudo enim pacto inter cives Romanos action non nascitur") [1, p.97].
The strict typification of contracts recognized by the courts left non-defined contracts without claims, the content of which deviated from the recognized contracts [2, p.533].
Over time, this system of contracts became inconvenient, because it did not meet the requirements of the economic life of Rome, in connection with which they gradually began to recognize new types of agreements, that is, non-defined contracts. In other words, there was no full recognition of the legal force of non-defined contracts and the principle of freedom to determine the type of contract in the Roman period.
The fall of the Western Roman Empire and the formation of other states on its territory led to the fact that Roman law practically became "dead" law.
In medieval Europe, canon law began to be of great importance, in view of the fact that the ecclesiastical jurisdiction extended to a wide range of relations, which we now regard as secular (contractual, hereditary, family, labor relations, etc.).
The civil and canon laws regulated the rights of the parties under the agreement in different ways. In Roman law, the rule that the nude pacts did not generate civil obligations was still in force. The canon law, in contrast to
the formalism of civil law, recognized
The principle of mutual consent "pacta sunt servanda" ("agreements must be abided") in the medieval canon law was based on the Christian moral prescription of truthfulness. The Liber Extra says that agreements, even "nude", must be abided [3, p.182-183].
In the medieval period, the cantonists put forward two theories of contract performance.
John Teuton (+1245/1246) put forward the theory of procedural protection of all agreements on ecclesiastical law. That is, only consent of the parties is enough to make the agreement valid.
When disagreeing with the opinion that all agreements were secured by judicial protection, Pope Innocent IV (1243-1254) referred to church sanctions, up to and including excommunication. This meant that a party that had not fulfilled its obligation under the agreement could be punished, but in no case, it could be forced to execute the contract or pay compensation for it.
The majority of canonists of the 12th-15th centuries abided the Teuton's theory [3, P.184]. However, in the doctrine, along with a widely formulated rule, one important condition for the validity of the pacts was fixed: their binding depended on the validity of the causa. The literal application of the "pacta sunt servanda" rule could lead not only to the implicit goal of protecting the interests of a bona fide creditor in an informal transaction, but also to undesirable consequences; for example, hasty or illegal agreements, that in the church court an unscrupulous lender could enforce bona fide debtor to execute. The canonists adapted the causa to protect the interests of a bona fide counterpart through the philosophical concept of causation (causality) [4, p.179-180].
However, despite the established principle of "pacta sunt servanda", the doctrine of non-defined contracts was finally established only in the new era.
The concept of non-defined contracts in the early modern period. During the early modern
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period, for the study of law, including contract law, lawyers began to use the humanistic and comparative methodology, abandoning the scholastic one.
When interpreting legal issues, jurists used not only the Code of Justinian but also addressed a wide range of sources (philosophical, religious, historical, etc.). This was the basis for a review in the field of contract law, of such issues as the essence of the contract, the procedural protection of all non-defined contracts, the contract's causa, the classification of contracts, etc.
Jurists began to consider the contract as a coincidence of the will of the parties (consensus).
They gave up on the division of agreements into contracts and pacts and the theory of "nude" and "attired" pacts, that is, a closed list of agreements that used the actionable protection. They recognized the principle of "pacta sunt servanda" common for contract law. According to D.Yu. Poldnikov, having been influenced by the moral and philosophical concepts of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas, representatives of the school of Salamanca attached the canonical rule "pacta sunt servanda" ("agreements must be abided") to the general legal principle. They unanimously recognized the contractual relationship as a manifestation of the human virtue of compensatory (exchange) justice. In fact, the concept of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas about agreements as acts of equivalent exchange, or proportional retribution was adopted [4, p.255].
Jurists adopted the canonical position on the contract's causa, first with respect to commutative contracts, then to both commutative and gratuitous ones. In the 17th-18th centuries, lawyers (H. Grotius, S. Pufendorf, J. Doma, C. Thomasius, etc.) generally denied the necessity of the contract's causa, arguing that the very agreement of the parties was a sufficient basis for giving the agreement legal force.
Another trend of the epoch, which indirectly affected the regime of non-defined contractual constructions in practice, was the growing intensity of the legislative regulation of contractual relations and the increase in the share of discretionary norms. Gradually, one formed the familiar system of general norms of contract law and special rules relating to specific types of contracts. Non-defined contracts were considered to be subject to the general rules of the law of obligations, but not subject to special regulations [1, p.107-108].
One of the first codifications that govern contractual relations is the Bavarian Civil Code of 1756 (Codex Maximilianeus Bavaricus Civilis), which is the merit of the Chancellor of
the State, Kreitmeier. The Code reproduced the decisions made in Bavaria since the era of the Pandects; it can also reveal a certain influence of the school of natural law [5, P.48]. The ideas of the school of natural law are particularly noticeable in the field of contract law. The Civil Code of Bavaria refused to divide agreements into contracts and pacts and designated them with the single term "convention". It also lacks the theory of "nude" and "attired" pacts:
"The agreements ... although being divided into pacts and contracts in the Roman law ... but now all the pacts have been given the strength and importance of the contract, so the above-mentioned (Roman) division has disappeared along with the difference between the so-called nude, legal, attired or supplementary pacts" (IV, 1, §3). In other words, the Code recognized the legal force of non-defined contracts. Along with this, the Code lists the conditions for the validity of the contract (IV, 1, § 5), establishes the principles of consensuality (IV, 1, § 5), the absence of a general rule on the special form of the contract (IV, 1, § 7), and the binding nature of all lawful agreements, the procedure for concluding contracts on the model of an offer and an acceptance [4, p.348].
Then, on the initiative of Frederick the Great, the codification was carried out in Prussia. The Prussian state code of 1746 was written in an easy language, which explains its influence on the compilers of the French Civil Code [5, P.48].
The rules on obligations are included in the acquisition of title section of the Code. Compilers of the Code proceeded from a broad concept of property, including both tangible and intangible benefits, so the right of property absorbed obligations (intangible benefits) [4, p.350].
In the Code, the natural legal concept of the contract is fixed, according to which the contract is understood as the will of the parties aimed at acquiring or alienating rights. The contract takes legal force from the moment of acceptance of the promise. The Prussian Code also establishes the freedom of form and content of contracts.
One of the significant codifications of the civil law of the early modern period is the French Civil Code of 1804.
In the development of the FCC, in the field of the law of obligations, the works of J. Doma and J. Potier were mainly used. A contract is an agreement by which one or more persons are obligated to give one or some other person something, to do or not to do something (Art. 1101 of the FCC)1.
In turn, according to Art. 1134 of the FCC, legally constituted agreements replace
1 French Civil Code (Napoleonic Code) of March 21, 1804 // http://www.napoleon-series.org
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the law for those who concluded them. These agreements can be canceled only by mutual consent of the parties or by virtue of grounds sanctioned by law. They must be performed in good faith. This article authorized the conclusion of any contracts that had a legal basis. Such a basis exists both in the case when the contract regulates the mutual exchange of goods, and in the case of transactions aimed at donating [1, p.108].
The validity of the contract is evidenced by four conditions: the consent of the party that undertakes the obligation; its ability to conclude contracts; a certain subject, which is the essence of the obligation; the legal basis for the taking of an obligation (Art. 1108 of the FCC).
The principle of determining the type of contracts was reflected in Art. 1107 of the FCC, contracts, regardless of whether they have the appropriate definition or not, are subject to general rules.
Thus, the FCC allows the conclusion of legal non-defined contracts and provides them with procedural protection.
In 1900, the number of Western European codes was supplemented by another codification, namely the German Civil Code., although the development of the GCC2 was begun as far back as 1847. The first commission for the development of the GCC created and consolidated the knowledge of Prussian, Bavarian, Saxon law, as well as the laws of other German lands. The commission included not only well-known German professors Windscheid, Plank and others, but also practicing lawyers. Dr. Pape headed the commission [6, p.32]. In 1888, the first project of the GCC, consisting of five volumes, was published. However, the first project of the GCC received many incisive comments, including that the project was written in the incomprehensible language, and that the draft included mostly Roman law and almost nothing German. Therefore, in order to eliminate these remarks, a new commission was formed in 1890, which began processing the initial project of the GCC. Thus, the GCC was adopted and published in 1896 and entered into force on January 1, 1900.
Regarding the form, the GCC shows its distinctive character with a completely original plan. The vast common part unites provisions concerning the whole ensemble of civil law institutions. Then the special part includes four books [5, p.53]. That is, the GCC consists of five books: Book One "General Part"; Book Two "Law of Obligations"; Book Three "Property Law"; Book Four "Family Law"; Book Five
"Inheritance Law".
The theoretical basis of the law of obligations that is placed in the second book of the GCC rests on the previous Savigny's doctrine of obligations [6, p.36].
So, according to § 241 of the GCC, the creditor, by virtue of the obligation, has the right to demand from the debtor the fulfillment of obligations. Execution of an obligation can also consist in refraining from the action. This statement contains the basic elements of the general definition of the obligation. In the general part of the Code, provisions are made for transactions in general, which apply both to unilateral transactions and to contracts. Contracts are traditionally the most common way of creating debt relationship. Unlike the FCC, the GCC does not define the contract. However, based on the norms specified in § 145 and 341, it is possible to single out the essential features of the contract: it is understood as a legal relationship established between several persons; its content can be represented as a positive action, and as abstinence from such one [7, p. 315-316].
In addition, the GCC, as already mentioned, does not contain a separate article or paragraph on the freedom to conclude non-defined contracts, but such a right of participants in civil circulation is assumed. The question of the principle of free definition of the type of contract at the time of development of the GCC was already so indisputable that the authors of the German codification considered it superfluous to point this out directly in the GCC, confining themselves to pointing out such a right only in preparatory materials [8, p.127; 9, p.14].
The admissibility of a free definition of the type of contract is further based on the right enshrined in Article 2.1 of the German Basic Law, such as general freedom of action3.
According to J. Schapp, herewith, it does not matter whether it is a question of mixing different types of contracts regulated in the eighth section of the second book of the GCC ... or of the type of contract that has been recognized only in circulation ... or of a binding agreement that cannot be assigned to any particular type. The last reason for accepting any binging arrangement is not the rule of law declaring the admissibility of such an agreement, but the very principle of freedom of a binding contract, guaranteed by Art. 2.1 of the German Basic Law and provided for in § 311 I of the GCC [10, p.94-95; 11, p.22].
Thus, in the very early modern period, all non-defined contracts, without any conditions
' Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch vom 18. August 1896 //https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bgb. * Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland vom 8. Mai 1949 // http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de.
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aS or restrictions, began to enjoy procedural * protection and were considered concluded from the moment the parties reached consent on all ¿Q the material terms of the agreement.
Non-defined contracts in Kazakhstan and r ^ Latvia in the pre-revolutionary period. In pre-^fi revolutionary times, the norms of adat (the customary law of the Kazakhs) were in force in the territory of Kazakhstan. A distinctive feature of the Kazakhstani customary law was the recognition of rules of conduct and judicial power by the headship, as well as public and political life. Such codified monuments of Kazakh customary law as the Code of Qasym Khan and "Zheti zhargy", compiled by Tauke Khan, were of particular importance. They reflected the most important norms of Kazakh customary law, including those regulating property relations in the Kazakh society [12].
However, researchers of Kazakh customary law are almost similar in the opinion that Kazakh customary law had developed for several centuries, mainly on the basis of a natural closed economy. The purpose of contracts in the Kazakh society, especially before Kazakhstan's accession to Russia, was mainly to satisfy the necessary household requirements of the community members, which is explained by their relatively small number. After the accession of Kazakhstan to Russia in the late 18th - early 19th centuries, resulting in the expansion of the sphere of commodity exchange and the emergence of new sources of law, the legal regulation of contractual relationships received a new impetus in the form of the emergence of new types of civil law contracts. Most of the contracts in the Kazakh community were oral [13, p.154]. Non-fulfillment of the contract was considered dishonest. Non-fulfillment of the contract was considered a matter dishonest: "he who does not keep his word does not have faith; he who does not have faith does not have God" [14, p.361].
r ^ Until the appearance of the written Code of
Qasym Khan in the 16th century, oral customs accepted by the nomadic society were the source of the Kazakhs' contract law. They recognized the conclusion of any types of contracts that corresponded to the general principles of justice, honesty and reasonableness that existed at that time in the nomadic society. Despite the absence of written law in the Kazakh society, all types of contracts were recognized as unwritten customs, and non-fulfillment of contracts was punishable by various sanctions of the biys. Proceeding from this, it is necessary to consider that during this period the principle of the general contract operated, that is, all contracts were considered non-defined.
After the adoption of the written Code of
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Qasym Khan, the principle of singular contracts began to operate in the Kazakh customary law. That is, along with the non-defined contracts, which were governed by the general principles of Kazakh customary law, there appeared defined contracts, which became regulated by one of the sections of the Qasym Khan's Code.
As noted, Qasym Khan's Code consisted of five sections. The section that governed the regulation of legal relations was one of them; it included the rules on the conclusion and execution of certain types of contracts: purchase and sale, exchange, loan and donation contracts [15, p.43].
Alongside with that, in practice, other kinds of contracts were concluded in the nomadic society of Kazakhs: the contracts of employment, work and labor and storage.
For example, a contract of work and labor in the daily life of Kazakhs was used for the performance of certain works. In accordance with this contract, the employee, on the instructions of the customer, carried out a certain amount of work, receiving a fee in accordance with the contract. The list of these works was small and limited to the requirements of everyday life of Kazakhs. These were works on skin processing, milking of cows, mares and camels, the pasturing of cattle [15, p.43].
In virtue of the fact that special legal regimes were not envisaged for these types of contracts in the Qasym Khan's Code, they can be considered non-defined contracts. Despite their "non-definedness", the courts of biys provided them with legal protection.
After Kazakhstan's accession to Russia, Tsarist Russia, for a long time the Kazakh customary law was the only source of law in the territory of Kazakhstan [12].
After the adoption of the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire in 1822, its operation extended to the territory of Kazakhstan as well. While the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire (Articles 569 and 570 did not directly address the issue of non-defined contracts, it quite clearly indicated that "every contract", if it is properly drawn up, imposes the obligation to fulfill it and gives the right to claim [1, p.112-113].
In the pre-revolutionary period, on the territory of the Baltic countries, including Latvia, there were numerous legal sources (legalization of Polish and Swedish kings, Roman law, city statutes) [16, p.188].
On November 12, 1864, Alexander II issued a decree on the publication of the third part of the Code of Local Laws of the Baltic provinces, where he points out that he had approved the third part of the Code of Local Laws of the Baltic provinces composed by the second division of his own chancery, containing the
Азаматтыц жэне азаматтыц ic ЖYргiзу цуцыгы
Code of Civil Law and Russian and German translations, for promulgation through the Government Senate in the same manner as was observed in the publication of the first parts, and with the enforcement from July 1, 1865. From that date, the third part of the Code of Local Laws of the Baltic provinces became the only source of local civil law in most of the Baltic region, and from that time the articles thereof were to operate and apply in the affairs of all government and judicial institutions on the same basis as general articles of the Laws of Empire. The new provisions of the Code of Local Laws of the Baltic provinces had no retroactive force, which the decree determined that the articles of this code that contained the necessary additions to the laws that had been in force before were applied only to those cases that arose after the promulgation of the code [17, p.115].
The creation of the Code of Local Laws of the Baltic provinces was the most successful and the only systematization of local laws in the Russian Empire at the regional level [18, p.39].
The section on the obligations is the most developed part of the Code of Local Laws of the Baltic provinces, where it was set forth in accordance with the system adopted in the textbooks: the so-called general part of the law of obligations went first and was followed by a special one [19, p.72]. The special part provided legal regulation for contracts, absolutely new for that time, such as an insurance contract, a contract of annuity and a contract for publication.
The Code of Local Laws of the Baltic provinces distributed all contracts in the system based on their content, for example, contracts, meaning the return of things, loan, mortgage, assignment, luggage, purchase, exchange and others. However, this classification was not exhaustive, as the contracts that did not fit into any of those categories in the Code could not have been concluded, and, nevertheless, they were obligatory for contracting parties (Art. 3209), if they did not contain anything illegal, immoral or dishonorable (Art. 3214) [20, p.119]. In other words, the Code of Local Laws allowed the conclusion of non-defined contracts.
When summing up the matter under consideration, it should be noted that in the pre-revolutionary period, Kazakhstan and Latvia, being a part of the Russian Empire, had their own special local legal sources that permitted the conclusion of non-defined contracts, along with the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire.
Non-defined contracts in the independent Republic of Latvia (1918-1940). With the independence of Latvia, the main sources
governing contractual relations were the tenth volume, the first part of the Civil Code of the Russian Empire and the third part of the Code of Local Laws of the Ostsee Provinces before the new Civil Law of Latvia came into force in 1938. In this regard, continuity in the independent Republic of Latvia with respect to the legal status of non-defined contracts remained.
The Latvian civil law was developed on the basis of the third volume of the Code of Local Legalizations of the Ostsee Provinces and adopted on January 28, 1937, and entered into force on January 1, 1938.
This Civil Law consists of an introduction and four parts, the first part of which is devoted to family law (Gimenes tiesibas), the second part to the law of succession (Mantojuma tiesibas), the third part to the property law (Lietu tiesibas) and the fourth part to the law of obligations (Saistibu tiesibas).
As A. Baykov notes, the maturity of Latvian civil science of this period is convincingly demonstrated by the adoption of the Civil Law. Since there were different civilists' views on the problem of further improvement and development of civil legislation, it should be noted that V.I. Sinaiskiy, at one of the most significant meetings of the Latvian legal community, namely at the First Congress of Lawyers (1932), called for the development of a new codified regulatory legal act, that would ensure the unity of legal regulation that constituted the necessary prerequisite for a sovereign national state. That is, the Civil Law had played a decisive role in the unification of Latvia's private law [21].
In the Civil Law of Latvia4, the freedom-of-contract doctrine is not explicitly provided, but it follows from a number of its provisions. For example, Section 1493 provides that a legal transaction is an allowedly permitted action to establish, modify or terminate legal relations. Section 1511 establishes that the contract, in the broad sense, is any mutual agreement of several persons on the establishment, modification or termination of any legal relationship. Section 1547 stipulates that a contract concluded on a lawful basis imposes the obligation to perform the promised action on the counterparty, and neither particular burden of the transaction nor the subsequent difficulties of performance entitle one party to recede from the contract, albeit with reimbursement of the losses to the other party.
Thus, the contract law of the first independent Republic of Latvia allowed the parties to conclude non-defined contracts; most
4 Latvijas Republikas Civillikums 1937.gada 28. janvari // https://likumi.lv/ta. Вестник Института законодательства и правовой информации РК
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importantly, they should not contradict the mandatory provisions of the current legislation of the country.
Non-defined contracts in Kazakhstan and Latvia during the Soviet period. After the establishment of Soviet power in Kazakhstan, the policy of full implementation of Russian law and the eradication of Kazakh customary law began; therefore, at the end of the 1930s, customary law turned from an official source of law into customs not sanctioned by the state. The first Civil Code of the Russian SFSR, adopted at the 4th session of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (ARCEC) of the 9th convocation and put into force by the decision of the ARCEC on November 11, 1922 from January 1, 1923, operated in the territory of the Kyrgyz (Kazakh) Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Kazakh ASSR), established on August 26, 1920. After the establishment of the Kazakh SSR, on the basis of the Constitution of the USSR of 1936, the operation of the Civil Code of the RSFSR of 1922 preserved on the territory of Kazakhstan [12].
The development of the national legal system of independent Latvia was interrupted after the establishment of Soviet power in its territory in June 1940. In November 1940, the Civil Law of Latvia of 1937 was abolished and replaced by the Civil Code of the RSFSR of 1922.
The Civil Code of the RSFSR5 did not directly point to the possibility of concluding non-defined contracts.
However, the Decree of the ARCEC of May 22, 1922 "On the main private property rights recognized by the RSFSR, protected by its laws and by the RSFSR courts" adopted in the first years of Soviet power, established the right to conclude any contracts not prohibited by law
[11, p.14].
As T.E. Novitskaya notes, the originality of the Civil Code of the RSFSR lied in the fact that it did not establish the principle of permissibility to enter into any contract, if it did not contradict the general requirements set by the Code concerning contracts. Even before the adoption of the Civil Code of the RSFSR, the People's Commissariat of Justice explained in a circular dated March 3, 1922, that the practice of registration of contracts by the notary, where legal relationships unknown to the law in force were
the contents, was illegal. The Code expanded the range of defined contracts; however, they did not exhaust all types [22, p.91-92].
M.I. Braginskiy also points out that the principle of protection of non-defined contracts was not fixed in this Code. Therefore, there was a different attitude to this principle in the literature of that time. There was no unified point of view on this matter in judicial practice as well. In some cases, courts recognized non-defined contracts as illegal. However, in parallel, there was another position aimed at recognizing the need to provide legal protection to non-defined contracts. This last line received special development in the military and post-war years. It was then that, in particular, the legal force of the contract of lifelong maintenance with dependence, the contract on the gratuitous use of property (loan) and the contract of storage, absent in the Civil Code of the RSFSR, was recognized [23, p.45-46].
I.B. Novitskiy was of the opinion that the types of contracts envisaged by the Code were not of exhaustive nature. The law provides for the most frequent contracts, but the parties can enter into contracts not prescribed by law, as long as their content does not contradict the general principles of Soviet law [24, p.100].
This issue was decided in favor of the non-defined contracts after the adoption of the Fundamentals of Civil Legislation of the USSR and the Union Republics of December 8, 1961, put into force on May 1, 19626. Based on the Soviet law in the union republics, the civil codes of the union republics were adopted. The civil codes of the Kazakh SSR7 and the Latvian SSR8 were adopted in 1963.
The Fundamentals of the Civil Legislation of the USSR and the Union republics, as well as the civil codes of the Kazakh and Latvian SSR, provided that civil rights and obligations arose from the grounds prescribed by the legislation of the USSR and the Kazakh SSR/Latvian SSR, as well as from the actions of citizens and organizations, which are not provided for by law, but due to the general principles and meaning of civil law, generated civil rights and obligations. In accordance with this, civil rights and obligations arise from transactions prescribed by law, as well as from transactions, not stipulated by law, but not contradicting it (Article 4).
5 Гражданский кодекс РСФСР от 31 октября 1922 года //http://pravo.gov.ru.
6 Основы гражданского законодательства Союза ССР и союзных республик, утвержденные Законом СССР от 8 декабря 1961 года (Ведомости Верховного Совета СССР, 1961 г., N 50, ст. 525) // http://pravo. gov.ru.
7 Гражданский кодекс Казахской Советской Социалистической Республики от 28 декабря 1963 года // https://online.zakon.kz.
8 Grazhdanskiikodeks Latviiskoi Sovetskoi Sotsialisticheskoi Respubliki: ofitsial'nyi tekst sprilozheniempostateino sistematizirovannykh materialov (Tieslietu ministrija). - Riga: Liesma, 1974. - 606 lpp.
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Thus, with the adoption in 1961 of the Fundamentals of Civil Legislation of the USSR and the Union Republics, non-defined contracts received legal protection at the legislative level.
Non-defined contracts in modern Germany, Kazakhstan and Latvia. Currently, according to the German legislation, GCC is still the main normative source regulating binding and contractual relations.
In 2002, in connection with the reform of the law of obligations, the second book of the GCC "Law of Obligations" was amended and supplemented, in accordance with the Law on the Modernization of Law of Obligations9.
The Law on the Modernization of Law of Obligations not only affected the general part of the GCC, but also touched on the general part of the law of obligations, as well as the special debt relations. For example, the issues on the limitation of action. If earlier, the limitation period for transactions, as a rule, was 30 years, now it is 3 or 10 years. In the section of the general part of the law of obligations, relations connected with circumstances that impede the fulfillment of obligations have obtained new regulations in the first turn. Before the reform of the law of obligations in the GCC, there was no difference between a loan in cash and in kind. Now both forms are subject to separate regulation, etc [25].
As for the freedom to conclude non-defined contracts, even now this right of the parties is not directly fixed in the GCC, but it is implied. Since the freedom-of-contract doctrine in Germany is elevated to the constitutional principle.
A new stage in the development of civil legislation in Kazakhstan began after Kazakhstan gained independence.
In the first years of independence, before the adoption of the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, many laws were put in force; they regulated various economic ties of different types and directions. But, as a rule, they were passed independently of each other; they were not sufficiently interlinked with each other, often contradicted one another in solving similar or compatible problems, and contained many gaps and obvious mistakes. On January 30, 1993, the Decree of the Supreme Council of Kazakhstan also put into force the Fundamentals of Civil Legislation of the USSR and the Republics on
the territory of the country. In the event of a conflict between the Fundamentals and the Civil Code of Kazakhstan in 1963, the Fundamentals of Legislation were in force. The project of the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan was based on the Fundamentals of Civil Legislation of the USSR and the Republics. The Civil Code was adopted in two stages: the General part - on December 27, 199410, the Special part -on July 1, 199911. The most important was the General part: it contained the general principled and revolutionary provisions, and it was the first [26].
Articles 2 and 380 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan are devoted to freedom of conclusion of non-defined contracts, according to which citizens and legal entities are free to enter into a contract. The compulsion to conclude a contract is allowed only in exceptional cases. The parties can conclude the contract, both envisaged and not envisaged by law.
Thus, the freedom-of-contract doctrine is the most important principle of civil law in independent Kazakhstan.
Currently, the main regulatory legal act regulating contractual relations in Latvia is the Civil Law of 1937, which was restored in parts in 1992-1993 after gaining independence.
Along with the Civil Law, other special laws have been adopted and put in force; they regulate specific types of contracts. An illustration of this is the Maritime Code of May 29, 200312, the Law of June 16, 1999 "On Trademarks and Indications of Geographical Origin"13, the Law of 6 April 2000 "On Copyright"14, etc.
In parallel with the Civil Law, the Commercial Law of April 13, 2010, is also in force; its Part D is dedicated to certain types of commercial transactions15. Section D includes 93 Articles, namely Articles 388-480 of the Commercial Law.
Concerning the freedom to conclude non-defined contracts, this right of the parties, as well as in Germany, is not directly expressed in the Civil Law of Latvia, but it is implied. First of all, this approach is explained by the fact that in Europe, as early as at the end of the 19th century, the freedom to enter into non-defined contracts was recognized and was not disputed by anyone.
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Gesetz zur Modernisierung des Schuldrechts vom 26. November 2001 // https://www.bgbl.de.
10
Гражданский кодекс Республики Казахстан (Общая часть) от 27 декабря 1994 года //http://online.zakon.kz.
11 Гражданский кодекс Республики Казахстан (Особенная часть) от 1 июля 1999года //https://online.zakon.kz.
12 Juras kodekss 2003. gada 29. maija //https://likumi.lv.
13 Par precu zimem un geogräfiskäs izcelsmes norädem likums 1999. gada 16. JUnija // https://likumi.lv.
14 Autortiesibu likums 2000. gada 6. aprila //https://likumi.lv.
Latvijas Republikas Komerclikums 2000.gada 13.aprili //https://likumi.lv.
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